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170 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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training
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systematic acquisition of skills, concepts, or attitudes that results in improved performance in another environment
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learning
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a relatively permanent change in behavior and human capabilities produced by experience and practice
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cognitive outcome
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type of learning outcome that includes declarative knowledge, or knowledge or rules, facts, and principles
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skill-based outcome
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type of learning outcome that concerns the development of motor or technical skills
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affective outcome
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type of learning outcome that includes attitudes or beliefs that predispose a person to behave in a certain way
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performance
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actions or behaviors relevant to the organization's goals; measured in terms of each individual's proficiency
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training needs analysis
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a three-step process of organizational, task, and person analysis; required to develop a systematic understanding of where training is needed, what needs to be taught or trained, and who will be trained
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organizational analysis
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component of training needs analysis that examines organizational goals, available resources, and the organizational environment; helps to determine where training should be directed
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task analysis
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component of training needs analysis that examines what employees must do to perform the job properly
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competencies
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sets of behaviors, usually learned by experience, that are instrumental in the accomplishment of desired organizational results or outcomes
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person analysis
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component of training needs analysis that identifies which individuals within an organization should receive training and what kind of instruction they need
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trainee readiness
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refers to whether employees have the personal characteristics necessary to acquire knowledge from a training program and apply it to the job
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performance orientation
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orientation in which individuals are concerned about doing well in training and being evaluated positively
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mastery orientation
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orientation in which individuals are concerned with increasing their competence for the task at hand; they view errors and mistakes as part of the learning process
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trainee motivation
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extent to which trainees are interested in attending training, learning from training, and transferring the skills and knowledge acquired in training back to the job
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expectancy framework
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approach in which employees' expectations about the relationship between how much effort they expend and how well they perform are important to their motivation and learning
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positive reinforcement
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occurs when desired behavior is followed by a reward, which increases the probability that the behavior will be repeated
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behavior modification
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a training and motivational method based primarily on reinforcement theory; involves identifying, measuring, rewarding, and evaluating employee behaviors aimed at performance improvement
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social learning theory
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cognitive theory that proposes that there are many ways to learn including observational learning, which occurs when people watch someone perform a task and then rehearse those activities mentally until they have an opportunity to try them out
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behavioral modeling
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learning approach that consists of observing actual job incumbents (or videos of job incumbents) who demonstrate positive modeling behaviors, rehearsing the behavior using a role-playing technique, receiving feedback on the rehearsal, and trying out the behavior on the job
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self-efficacy
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the belief in one's capability to perform a specific task or reach a specific goal
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goal setting
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motivational approach in which specific, difficult goals direct attention and improve performance in training and on the job
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feedback
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knowledge of the results of one's actions; enhances learning and performance in training and on the job
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active practice
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involves actively participating in a training or work task rather than passively observing someone else perform the task
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automaticity
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occurs when tasks can be performed with limited attention; likely to develop when learners are given extra learning opportunities after they have demonstrated mastery of a task
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fidelity
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extent to which the task trained is similar to the task required on the job
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physical fidelity
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extent to which the training task mirrors the physical features of the task performed on the job
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psychological fidelity
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extent to which the training task helps trainees to develop the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) necessary to perform the job
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whole learning
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training approach in which the entire task is practiced at once
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part learning
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training approach in which subtasks are practiced separately and later combined
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massed practice
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conditions in which individuals practice a task continuously and without rest
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distributed practice
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provides individuals with rest intervals between practice sessions, which are spaced over a longer period of time
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learning organization
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company that emphasizes continuous learning, knowledge sharing, and personal mastery
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on-the-job training
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involves assigning trainees to jobs and encouraging them to observe and learn from more experienced employees
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apprenticeship
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formal program used to teach a skilled trade
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job rotation
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approach that involves moving employees to various departments or areas of a company, or to various jobs within a single department
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classroom lecture
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training method in which the trainer communicates through spoken words and audiovisual materials what trainees are supposed to learn; also commonly used to efficiently present a large amount of information to a large number of trainees
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programmed instruction
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approach in which trainees are given instructional materials in written or computer-based forms that positively reinforce them as they move through the material at their own pace
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linear programming
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type of programmed instruction in which all trainees proceed through the same material
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branching programming
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type of programmed instruction that provides a customized approach enabling each learner to practice material he or she had difficulty with when it was first presented
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simulator
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teaching tool designed to reproduce the critical characteristics of the real world in a training setting that produces learning and transfer to the job
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distance learning
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approach that allows trainees to interact and communicate with an instructor by using audio and video (television, computer, or radio) links that allows for learning from a distant location
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computer-based training
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includes text, graphics, and/or animation presented via computer for the express purpose of teaching job-relevant knowledge and skills
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adaptive guidance
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an instructional approach that provides trainees with information that helps them interpret their past performance and also determine what they should be studying and practicing to improve their future performance
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critical thinking skills
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require active involvement in applying the principles under discussion
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transfer of training
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degree to which trainees apply the knowledge, skills, and attitudes gained in training to their jobs
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transfer of training climate
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workplace characteristics that either inhibit or facilitate the transfer to the job of what has been learned in training
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horizontal transfer
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transfer across different settings or contexts at the same level of the organization
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vertical transfer
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transfer across different levels of the organization; concerned with the link between individual training outcomes and outcomes at higher levels of the organization such as teams
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development
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formal education, job experiences, mentoring relationships, and assessments of personality and abilities that help employees prepare for the future
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assessment center
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collection of procedures for evaluation that is administered to groups of individuals; assessments are typically performed by multiple assessors
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360 degree feedback
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process of collecting and providing a manager or executive with feedback from many sources, including supervisors, peers, subordinates, customers, and suppliers
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coaching
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a practical, goal-focused form of personal, one-on-one learning for busy employees that may be used to improve performance, enhance a career, or work through organizational issues or change initiatives
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informal training
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training experiences that occur outside of formal training programs; can include specific job assignments, experiences, and activities outside of work
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sexual harassment
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unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other conduct of a sexual nature constitute sexual harassment when submission to or rejection of this conduct explicitly or implicitly affects an individual's employment, unreasonably interferes with an individual's work performance, or creates a hostile work environment
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quid pro quo sexual harassment
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includes direct requests for sexual favors, for example, when sexual compliance is mandatory for promotions or retaining one's job
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hostile working environment sexual harassment
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occurs when a pattern of conduct, which is perceived as offensive and is related to sex or gender, unreasonably interferes with work performance
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expatriate
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manager or professional assigned to work in a location outside of his or her home country
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culture shock
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condition typically experienced four to six months after expatriates arrive in a foreign country; symptoms include homesickness, irritability, hostility toward host nationals, and inability to work effectively
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cross-cultural training
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designed to prepare individuals from one to interact more effectively with individuals from different cultures; goal is to develop understanding of basic differences in values and communication styles
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cultural assimilator
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written or computer-based tool for individual use which presents a collection of scenarios describing challenging, cross-cultural critical incidents
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culture-specific assimilator
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assimilator developed for a particular culture
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culture-general assimilator
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used to sensitize people to cross-cultural differences they may encounter across a wide variety of cultures
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trust
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belief in how a person or an organization will act on some future occasion
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organizational justice
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type of justice that is composed of organizational procedures, outcomes, and interpersonal interactions
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distributive justice
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perceived fairness of the allocation of outcomes or rewards to organizational members
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merit or equity norm
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definition of fairness based on the view that those who work hardest or produce the most should get the greatest rewards; the most common foundation for defining fairness in the US
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need norm
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definition of fairness based on the view that people should receive rewards in proportion to their needs
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equality norm
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definition of fairness based on the view that people should receive approximately equal rewards; most common foundation for defining fairness in Scandinavian and Asian countries
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procedural justice
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perceived fairness of the process (or procedure) by which ratings are assigned or rewards are distributed
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voice
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having the possibility of challenging, influencing, or expressing an objection to a process or outcome
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interactional justice
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concerned with the sensitivity with which employees are treated and linked to the extent that an employee feels respected by the employer
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deontic justice
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a form of organizational justice based on what is the correct moral course of action for a company or an individual
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rational economic model
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accounts for the way people choose jobs in which the individual is viewed as an accountant who sums potential economic losses and gains in making the best choice
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rational psychological model
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accounts for the way people choose jobs that infer a bookkeeper mentality on the part of the applicant, but also includes calculations that depend on psychological factors
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organizational fit model
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accounts for the way people choose jobs by examining the match between the personality and values of the individual and the organization
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affirmative action
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program that acknowledges that particular demographic groups may be underrepresented in the work environment; provides specific mechanisms for reducing this underrepresentation
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motivation
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concerns the conditions responsible for variations in intensity, persistence, quality, and direction of ongoing behavior
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instinct
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inborn tendency that is thought to direct behavior
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need
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internal motivation that is thought to be inborn and universally present in humans
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drive
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non-human equivalent of "motives" and "needs"
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behaviorist approach
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approach developed by B.F. Skinner that placed the emphasis for behavior and directed activity directly on the environment rather than on any internal needs or instincts
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field theory
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approach developed by Kurt Lewin, who proposed that various forces in the psychological environment interacted and combined to yield a final course of action
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group dynamics
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field that grew out of the application of Kurt Lewin's field theory to industry
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"person-as-machine"
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metaphor that suggests that people's behaviors/actions are reflexive and involuntary and are performed without conscious awareness
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"person-as-Godlike"
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metaphor that suggests that people are perfectly rational and intentional rather than automatic or reflexive
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"person-as-scientist"
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metaphor that suggests that people are active information-gatherers and analysts who seek knowledge and understanding as a way of mastering their environment
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limited rationality
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the inability of humans to reason and make decisions in perfectly rational ways
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"person-as-judge"
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metaphor in which an individual seeks information about the extent to which the person and others are perceived as responsible for positive and negative events. the person looks for evidence of intention in the actions of others and considers those intentions in choosing a personal course of action
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work-life balance
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area of research that investigates whether the satisfaction that one experiences at work is in part affected by the satisfaction that one experiences in non-work and vice versa, particularly to the extent that one environment has demands that conflict with the other
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attitudes
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relatively stable feelings or beliefs that are directed toward specific persons, groups, ideas, jobs, or other objects
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limited rationality
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the inability of humans to reason and make decisions in perfectly rational ways
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"person-as-judge"
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metaphor in which an individual seeks information about the extent to which the person and others are perceived as responsible for positive and negative events. the person looks for evidence of intention in the actions of others and considers those intentions in choosing a personal course of action
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work-life balance
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area of research that investigates whether the satisfaction that one experiences at work is in part affected by the satisfaction that one experiences in non-work and vice versa, particularly to the extent that one environment has demands that conflict with the other
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attitudes
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relatively stable feelings or beliefs that are directed toward specific persons, groups, ideas, jobs, or other objects
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Maslow's need theory
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theory that proposed that all humans have a basic set of needs and that these needs express themselves over the life span of the individual as internal "pushes" or drives. identified five basic needs sets: physiological, security, love or social, esteem, and self-actualization
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two-factor theory
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theory proposed by Herzberg that suggested that there were really two basic needs, not five as suggested by Maslow, and that they were not so much hierarchically arranged as independent of one another
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hygiene needs
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lower-level needs described in Herzberg's two-factor theory. Herzberg proposed that meeting these needs would eliminate dissatisfaction, but would not result in motivated behavior or a state of positive satisfaction
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motivator needs
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higher-level needs described in Herzberg's two-factor theory. Herzberg proposed that meeting such needs resulted in the expenditure of effort as well as satisfaction
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ERG theory
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theory of human needs proposed by Alderfer who suggested that human needs are best thought of as arranged in three levels: "Existence", "Relatedness", and "Growth"
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reinforcement theory
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theory that proposes that behavior depends on three simple elements: stimulus, response, and reward. proposed that if a response in the presence of a particular stimulus is rewarded (i.e. reinforced), that response is likely to occur again in the presence of that stimulus
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contingent reward
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system in which a reward depends on or is contingent on a particular response
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intermittent reward
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system in which only a portion of correct responses are rewarded
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continuous reward
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system in which a reward is presented every time a correct response occurs
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path-goal theory of motivation
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first formal work motivation theory (of Georgopolus, Mahoney, and Jones, 1957) to suggest that people weighed options before choosing among them. reasoned that if a worker saw high productivity as a path to the goal of desired rewards or personal goals (e.g. a pay increase or promotion, or increased power, prestige, or responsibility), that worker would likely be a high producer
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VIE theory
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motivation theory that assumed that individuals rationally estimate the relative attractiveness and unattractiveness of different rewards or outcomes (Valence), the probability that performance will lead to particular outcomes or rewards (Instrumentality), and the probability that effort will lead to performance (Expectancy)
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valence
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the strength of a person's preference for a particular outcome
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instrumentality
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the perceived relationship between performance and the attainment of a certain outcome
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expectancy
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an individual's belief that a particular behavior (e.g. effort, hard work) will lead to a particular outcome (e.g. a promotion)
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dissonance theory
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theory suggested by Festinger that observed that tension exists when individuals hold "dissonant cognitions" (incompatible thoughts). this approach assumes that individuals always seek some sense of "balance" (i.e. absence of tension) and that they will direct their behavior toward reducing the tension resulting from dissonant cognitions
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equity theory
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motivational theory developed by Adams that suggested that individuals look at their world in terms of comparative inputs and outcomes. individuals compare their inputs and outcomes with others (e.g. peers, co-workers) by developing an input/outcome ratio
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inputs
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the training, effort, skills, and abilities that employees bring to or invest in their work
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outcomes
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the compensation, satisfaction, and other benefits employees derive from their work
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comparison other
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a co-worker or idealized other person to which the individual compares him or herself in determining perceived equity
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outcome/input ratio
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ratio that results when employees compare their inputs and outcomes to those others (e.g. peers, co-workers) to determine if they are being treated equitably
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person-as-intentional approach
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motivational approach that assumes that individuals are intentional in their behavior
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goal setting theory
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theory proposed by Locke and colleagues in which the general concept of a goal is adapted to work motivation. in this approach, a goal is seen as a motivational force, and individuals who set specific, difficult goals perform better than individuals who simply adopt a "do your best" goal or no goal at all
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feedback loop
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connection between knowledge of results and the intermediate stages that occur between goal commitment and performance
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control theory
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theory based on the principle of a feedback loop that assumes that an individual compares a standard to actual outcome and adjusts behavior to bring the outcome into agreement with the standard
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self-regulation
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process by which individuals take in information about behavior, and make adjustments or changes based on that information. these changes, in turn, affect subsequent behavior (e.g. strategies, goal commitment)
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self-efficacy
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the belief in one's capability to perform a specific task or reach a specific goal
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action theory (Rubicon theory)
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theory that includes broad consideration of the role of intention in motivated behavior as well as the connection between intention and action
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action process
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process that starts with a goal, proceeds to a consideration of events that may occur in the future, then to the development of several alternative plans, the selection of a plan, the execution and monitoring of the chosen plan, and the processing of information resulting from the execution of the plan. the last step, feedback, then influences goal development once again
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action structure
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structure that includes the notion that 1) observable action is the result of a number of prior events and plans, hierarchically arranged and 2) the feedback and resulting regulation of actions occur at different levels
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leader emergence
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study of the characteristics of individuals who become leaders, examining the basis on which they were elected, appointed, or simply accepted
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leadership effectiveness
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study of which behaviors on the part of a designated leader (regardless of how that position was achieved) led to an outcome valued by the work group or organization
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leader
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the individual in a group given the task of directing task-relevant group activities or, in the absence of a designated leader, carrying the primary responsibility for performing these functions in the group
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attempted leadership
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leader accepts the goal of changing a follower, and can be observed attempting to change the follower
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successful leadership
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follower changes his or her behavior as a function of the leader's effort
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effective leadership
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leader changes follower's behavior, resulting in both leader and follower feeling satisfied and effective
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leader development
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concentrates on developing, maintaining, or enhancing individual leader attributes such as knowledge, skills, and abilities
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leadership development
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concentrates on the leader-follower relationship and on developing an environment in which the leader can build relationships that enhance cooperation and resource exchange
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interpersonal competence
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includes social awareness and social skills such as the ability to resolve conflict and foster a spirit of cooperation
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power motive
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attaining control or power that results from people learning that the exercise of control over others or the environment is pleasing
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activity inhibition
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psychological term used to describe a person who is not impulsive
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affiliation need
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need for approval or connections with others
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great man/great woman theory
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developed by historians who examined the life of a respected leader for clues leading to his or her greatness; often focused on a galvanizing experience or an admirable trait (persistence, optimism, or intelligence) that a leader possesses to a singular degree
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trait approach
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attempts to show that leaders possessed certain characteristics that nonleaders did not
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power approach
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examines the types of power wielded by leaders
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behavioral approach
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begun by researchers at Ohio State University; focused on the kinds of behavior engaged in by people in leadership roles and identified two major types: consideration and initiating structure
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consideration
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type of behavior identified in the Ohio State studies; included behavior indicating mutual trust, respect, and a certain warmth and rapport between the supervisor and group
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initiating structure
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type of behavior identified in the Ohio State studies; included behavior in which the supervisor organizes and defines group activities and his relation to the group
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task-oriented behavior
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identified by University of Michigan researchers as an important part of a leader's activities; similar to initiating structure from the Ohio State studies
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relations-oriented behavior
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identified by University of Michigan researchers as an important part of a leader's activities; similar to consideration in the Ohio State model
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participative behavior
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identified in the Michigan studies; allows subordinates more participation in decision making and encourages more two-way communication
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contingency approach
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proposed to take into account the role of the situation in the exercise of leadership
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job maturity
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a subordinate's job-related ability, skills, and knowledge
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psychological maturity
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the self-confidence and self-respect of the subordinate
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path-goal theory of leadership
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leadership theory proposed by House et al; includes both the characteristics of the subordinate and the characteristics of the situation; assumes that the leader's responsibility is to show the subordinate the path to values goals
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social undermining
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behavior that includes a leader's criticism indicating a dislike for another individual, and actions that tend to present an obstacle to the individual's goal-directed behavior
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leader-member exchange (LMX) theory
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proposed that leaders adopt different behaviors with individual subordinates; the particular behavior pattern of the leader develops over time and depends to a large extent on the quality of the leader-subordinate relationship
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in-group members
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people who have high-quality relationships with their leader and high latitude for negotiating their work roles
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out-group members
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people who have low-quality relationships with their leader and low latitude for negotiating their work roles
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life cycle of a leader-follower relationship
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describes recent versions of leader-member exchange (LMX) theory that include a dynamic process in which the tasks of the leader is to drive the relationship from a tentative first-stage relationship to a deeper, more meaningful one
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transformational leadership
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describes the behavior of inspirational political leaders who transform their followers by appealing to nobler motives such as justice, morality, and peace
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transactional leadership
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leaders show followers how they can meet their personal goals by adopting a particular behavior pattern; the leader develops social contracts with followers in which certain behaviors will be rewarded
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idealized influence
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leaders display conviction, emphasize trust, take stands on difficult issues, emphasize the importance of commitment and purpose, and are aware of the ethical consequences of their decisions
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inspirational motivation
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leaders articulate an appealing vision of the future, challenge followers with high standards, talk optimistically with enthusiasm, and provide encouragement and meaning for what needs to be done
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intellectual stimulation
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leaders question old assumptions, values, and beliefs; stimulate new ways of doing things, and encourage expression of ideas and reasons
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individualized consideration
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leaders deal with others as individuals; consider individual needs, abilities, and aspirations; listen attentively; and advise, coach, and teach
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laissez-faire leadership
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lowest level of leadership identified by Bass who contrasted it with transactional leadership and transformational leadership
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full-range theory of leadership
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hierarchical model that ranges from laissez-faire leadership through transactional leadership to transformational leadership
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Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ)
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self-report instrument used in the development and validation of the theory of transformational leadership
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charisma
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a personal attribute of a leader that hypnotizes followers and compels them to identify with and attempt to emulate the leader
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charismatic leader
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followers are emotionally attached to this leader, never question the leader's beliefs or actions, and see themselves as integral to the accomplishment of the leader's goals
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charismatic leadership theory
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approach with many different versions of the notion that charisma is related to leadership; (1) in a crisis situation, followers perceive charismatic characteristics in an individual and accept that person as a leader; (2) certain leader behaviors (use of innovative strategies) contribute to a charismatic aura
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virtual team
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team that has widely dispersed members working together toward a common goal and linked through computers and other technology
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telecommuting
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accomplishing work tasks from a distant location using electronic communication media
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global leadership and organizational behavioral effectiveness (GLOBE)
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large-scale cross-cultural study of leadership by 170 social scientists and management researchers in over 60 countries
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culture-specific characteristics
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leader characteristics that are more acceptable in some countries than others
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