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134 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is memory?
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Any indication that learning has persisted over time. It is our ability to store and retrieve information. (look up official def in book)
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What are mamilary bodies responsible for?
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Learning and memory
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What is flashbulb memory?
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A clear, strong, and persistant memory that results from a unique and highly emotional moment. Can be unreliable.
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What are the 3 main stages of memory?
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1) Encoding = entering info into the brain
2) Storage 3) Retrieval |
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What is short-term memory?
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Working memory
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What is awareness?
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Comes in transition between short and long term memory and vice versa
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Describe the A.S. Model
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The first model of memory.
Has 3 parts: 1) Sensory Memory 2) Short-term memory 3) Long-Term memory |
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Problems with the A.S. Model
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-Some info skips the first 2 stages enters long-term memory automatically
-We select only information that is important through us through attention -The nature of short-term memory is more complex |
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Working Memory
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New concept of short term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual information as well as info retrieved from long term memory
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Encoding
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processing of information into the memory system using either automatic or effortful processing
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Automatic Processing
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Unconsciously processing information. Space, time, and events that occur to you are usually automatically processed. More effective if it is interesting and holds meaning
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Effortful Processing
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encoding that requires attention and conscious effort. Rehersal is one technique.
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Rehersal
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Conscious repetition of information during effortful processing to commit it to memory
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Memmory Effects
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-Next in line effect
-Spacing effect -Serial position effect |
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Next-in-line effect
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When your recall is better for what other people say but poor for a person just before you in line
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Spacing effect
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We retain information better when our rehersal is distributed over time
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Serial Position Effect
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When your recall is better for the first (primacy) and last (recency) items, but poor for middle items on a list
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Distributed Rehersal (spacing effect)
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Studying material over a period of time. Much better than massed practice. Like studying after each chapter.
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What are the three types of encoding?
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1) encoding by meaning
2) encoding by images 3) encoding by organization |
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What are the three levels of encoding meaning?
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1) Structural encoding - Shallow. Recognize the word.
2) Phonemic encoding - Intermediate. Being able to rhyme the word with something. 3) Semantic encoding - Deep. Being able to attach a meaning or definition to the world. |
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Visual encoding
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Using mental pictures (imagery) as a powerful aid to effortful processing. More effective when combined with semantic encoding
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Mnemonics
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Memory aids, epecially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices. Consists of the method of loci and the link method.
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Method of Loci
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Picturing the locations of the objects on a list that you need to memorize
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Link Method
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forming a mental image of items to be remembered in a way that links them together
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Encoding Information Using Organization
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Breaking down complex info into broad concepts, categories and subcategories to make it easier to memorize. Two methods include chunking and hierarchy.
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chunking
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organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.
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Acronyms
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Another way to chunk and remember info. (i.e PEMDAS)
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Hierarchy
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Complex information broken down into broad concepts further subdivided into categories and subcategories. Great for memory.
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Intelligence
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Mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowldege to adapt to new situations. In research, intelligence is whatever the IQ test measures which tends to be school smarts.
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Yerkes and Standford-Binet
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The fathers of intelligence research
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Wechsler test
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Most common IQ test. Looks at language and non-verbal skills.
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T/F: Intelligence is a concept, not a thing
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True
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Reification
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An error that occurs when we think of intelligence as a trait (thing). Occurs when we view an abstract immaterial concept as if it were a concrete thing.
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Controversies about intelligence
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1) Is intelligence a single abiliity or does it consist of several specific abilities
2) Is it possible to locate and measure intelligence within the brain? |
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T/F: There can be different kinds of intelligences based on diverse abilities
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True
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General intelligence (g)
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According to Spearman, general intelligence underlies specific mental abiliites and is therefore measured by every task on an intellience test
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Gardner's Theory of Intelligence
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Says that there are 8 forms of intelligence and a ninth speculated one.
1) Linguistic 2) Logical-mathmatical 3) Musical 4) Spacial 5) Bodily-kinesthetic 6) Intrapersonal (self) 7) Interpersonal (others) 8) Naturalist 9) Existential intelligence (the ability to ponder about life, death, and existence |
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Sternberg's Theory of Intelligence
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Suggests three intelligences rather than 8. Essentially, book smarts, street smarts, and creativity:
1) Analytical intelligence - assessed by intelligence tests 2) Creative intelligence - intelligence that makes us adapt to novel situations, generating novel ideas 3) Practical intellgence |
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Emotional intelligence
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The ability to perceive, understand and use emotions. Has four components:
1) Perceiving emotion - recognizing emotions in faces, music, and stories 2) Understanding emotion - predicting emotions, how they change and blend 3) Managing emotions - expressing emotions in different situations 4) Using emotions - utilizing emotions to adapt or be creative |
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Criticism of emotional intelligence
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Gardner and others say we stretch this concept of intelligence to far when we apply it to emotions
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Creativity
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The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas. Correlates with intelligence.
1) Expertise - well developed knowledge base 2) Imaginative thinking - the ability to see things in novel ways 3) Adventuresome personality - seeks new experiences rather than following the pack |
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Social psychology
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The scientific study of how we think about, influence and relate to one another
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Attribution Theory
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Attributing behaviors of others to either the situation they are in or their inherent personality
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Dispositional attribution
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Explaining behavior in terms of personality. Leads to unfavorable reactions.
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Situational attribution
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Explaining behavior in terms of the situation. Leads to more tolerant reactions.
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Fundamental attribution error
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Tendency to overestimate the impact of personal disposition and underestimate the impact of the situations in analyzing the behaviors of others.
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Attitude
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Feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events
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Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon
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Tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later on with a large request.
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Cognitive Dissonance
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Tension that occurs when our attitudes and actions are opposed. To reduce this tension, we bring our attitudes closer to our actions. (Prisoner-guard example)
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Social Influence
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What molds the attitudes, beliefs, decisions, and actions of people in society
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Behavior
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contagious, modeled by one, followed by another. We follow the behavior of others to conform.
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Obedience
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Expression of compliance towards authority
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The Chameleon Effect
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Unconsciously mimicing others' visible behaviors in order to fit in.
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Conformity
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adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard. Greatly affected by group pressure.
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Why do we conform?
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-Normative Social Influence
-Informative Social Influence |
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Normative Social Influence
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Conforming to gain approval or avoid rejection. More likely when price of going against the group is severe.
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Informative Social Influence
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-Often, groups provide valuable information. Not listening to others who have a good point is not that smart.
- When we are unsure and when being right is important, we tend to listen to other people. |
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Milgram's Test
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when he ordered the research subject to keep shocking another rigged subject behind a glass screen and some would continue the shocks even after they felt it was morally wrong
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Factors that Affect Compliance
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-Proximity of authority figure
-Prestige of authority figure -Depersonalized victim -No role models for defiance |
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Individual Resistance
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Resisting social coerscion, like the people who decided to end Milgram's test
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Lessons from the Conformity and Obedience Studies
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- Participants were pressurized between following their standards and being responsive to others
-Participants were torn between hearing victims pleas and the experimenter's orders -The foot in the door effect + obedience = possibility for evil (Nazi Germany) |
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Social facilitation
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improved performance on a task in the presence of others. Strengthens the most likely response.
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Social loafing
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tendency to exert less effort towards attaining a common goal when in a group than when tested individually
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Deindividuation
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loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity (Mob behavior)
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Group Polarization
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enhancement of like-minded group's prevailing attitudes
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Groupthink
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Mode of thinking that occurs when the conformity in a decision-making group overrides realistic appraisal of alternatives (Occurs when people in power are surrounded by only yes-men)
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Power of Individuals
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Social influence is strong, but so is the power of the committed individual (Ghandi, man at Tiennammen Square)
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Prosocial Relations
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The positive relationships we have with other people. Includes attraction/affection, altruism and peacemaking
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Factors of Attraction
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-Proximity
-Physical Attractiveness -Similarity |
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Proximity
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Geographic nearness is a powerful predictor of friendship. Repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases their attraction
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Physical attractiveness
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Physical appearance affects how much we like other people. Attractive people appear to be healthier, happier, and more successful. Not always true.
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Similarity
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Individuals who have similar attitudes, beliefs and interests tend to feel connected to one another.
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Factors of Romantic Love
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-Passionate love
-Companionate Love |
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Passionate Love
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An aroused state of intense positive absorption in another usually present at the beginning of a love relationship. Arousal is a key component.
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Companionate Love
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Deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined. Has equity and self-disclosure.
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Equity
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Condition of companionate love in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it
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Self-Disclosure
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Revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others
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Altruism
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Helping others with no expectation of reward and sometimes with risk of harm to oneself.
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The Bystander Effect
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Tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present (diffusion of responsibility)
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Bystander intervention
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only occurs when somebody notices the incident, thinks its an emergency, assumes responsibility and then attempts to help
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Social Exchange Theory
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Our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs. Influenced by the reciprocity norms and social-responsibility norms.
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Reciprocity Norm
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The expectation that we should return help to those who have helped us
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Social-Responsibility Norm
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Largely learnt, a norm that tells us to help others when they need us even though they may not repay us in kind
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Peacemaking
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A strategy designed to decrease tension. One side recognizes mutual interests and initiates a small concillatory act that opens the door for reciprocation by the other party.
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Antisocial Relations
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The negative interactions between groups and individuals that may lead to conflict or descrimination
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Superordinate Goals
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shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation
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Types of Antisocial Relations
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-Prejudice
-Aggression -Conflict |
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Social Psychology
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The study of how we think about, influence and relate to one another.
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Prejudice
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An unjustifiable (usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members - often of different cultural, ethnic or gender groups.
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Components of prejudice
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- Beliefs (stereotypes)
- emotions (hostility, envy, fear towards a group) - Predisposition to act and discriminate |
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Gender Prejudice
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Although prejudice prevails against women, more people feel more positively towards women then men
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Social Inequality
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The haves tend to propagate ideas about the have nots
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Ingroup
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People with whom one shares a common identity
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Outgroup
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Those perceived as different from one's ingroup
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Ingroup Bias
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The tendency to favor one's own group
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Scapegoating
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Seeking someone else to blame when people are afraid, angry or frustrated
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Cognitive factors of prejudice
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-Categorizing (sterotyping to simplify)
- Vivid Cases (very violent/salient events are remembered well and can be attributed to a particular group) - Just-world phenomenon (Tendency to believe the world is just and people get what they deserve) |
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Aggression
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Any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy
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Reactive vs. Proactive hostility
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-Reactive = hostility against perceived aggression
-Proactive = calculated means to an end |
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Aggression vs. Assertiveness
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Aggression is different in that you intend to get what you want through pain or destruction
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Biological Influences of Aggression
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1) Genetic (possibly linked to Y)
2) Neural (amygdala in limbic system and frontal lobe are involved with aggression) 3) Biochemical (Level of aggression influenced by levels of testosterone) |
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Psychological Influences of Aggression
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1) Frustration-Aggression Principle (frustration creates anger which can generate aggression)
2) Aversive physical environments (murders increase with temp) 3) Being rewarded for aggression 4) Violence in our social scripts (templates for how to behave in a particular situation. Media plays a large role) |
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Conflict
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Perceived incompatibility of actions, goals or ideas
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Social Trap
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A situation in which the conflicting parties rationally pursue their self-interest and become caught in mutually destructive behaviro
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Personality
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An individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting
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Freud and his theory
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Freud was a physician who developed a theory of personality which included the unconscious mind, psychosexual stages and defense mechanisms. Focused on early childhood experiences, unconscious motives and conflicts and coping with sexual and aggressive urges.
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Freud's Model of the Mind
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Personality develops as a result of our efforts to resolve conflicts between biological impulses (id), social restraints (ego) and internal moral imperatives (superego)
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Id
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tries to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. Operates on the pleasure principle (demands immediate gratification)
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Ego
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conscious part of the mind that mediates the demands of the id and the superego. Operates on the reality principle (delaying gratification until and appropriate outlet is found)
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Superego
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The moral component that incorporates societal standards of right and wrong
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Behavior
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The result of continual internal, conflicts centered primarily on sex and aggression
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Ego's Defense Mechanisms
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1) Repression (banishing anxiety-causing thoughts)
2) Regression (retreating to a more infantile stage) 3) Reaction formation (making unacceptable impulses into their opposites) 4) Projection (diguising threatening impulses by attributing them to others) 5) Rationalization (self-justifying explanations in place of real, more threatening reasons for one's actions) 6) Displacement (not channeling your aggression at the person but at someone or something else - punching a wall) |
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5 Stages of the Psychosexual Stage Theory of Development
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1) Oral (8-10 months where pleasure center is on the mouth)
2) Anal (18-36 months where there is coping with demands for control) 3) Phalic (3-6 years where the pleasure zone is in the genitals. Coping with incestuous sexual feelings.) 4) Latency (6 to puberty where there are dormant sexual feelings) 5) Genital (from puberty on, where maturation of sexual interests occurs) |
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Oedipus/Electra complex
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A boy's/girl's sexual desires towards his/her mother/father and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father/mother.
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Identification
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When children cope with threatening feelings by repressing them and by identifying with the rival parent.
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Neo-Freudians and their Theory
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Jung, Adler, and Horney believed that there was a common resevoir of images derived from our species' past explaining why many cultures share certain myths.
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Assessing Unconscious Processes
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Projective tests aimed to reveal the unconscious mind by having them interpret, and hopefully project their own inner feelings onto these ambiguous images.
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Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
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A projective test in which people make up stories about ambiguous scenes
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Rorschach Inkblot Test
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Most widely used projective test composed of 10 inkblots to be interpreted by the subject
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Main Issues with Projection Tests
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They lack in reliability and validity.
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Maslow's Humanistic Perspective
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proposed that humans ultimately seek self-actualization or fulfilling our true potential
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Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs from Bottom to Top
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-Deficit Needs
-Physiological Needs -Safety Needs -Belongingness Needs -Esteem Needs -Self-actualization needs -Self-transcendence Needs |
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Roger's Theory of Unconditional Positive Regard
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People have an attitude of acceptance of others despite their failings.
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Main Belief of Humanistic Psychology
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Humans are inherently good
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Medical Model
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1) Etiology - cause and development of disorder
2) Diagnosis - Distinguishing diseases from one another based on symptoms 3) Treatment 4) Prognosis - forecast about the disorder |
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Psychological Disorders
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Persistently harmful thoughts, feelings and actions. Resultant behavior must be deviant, distressful or dysfunctional
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Deviant behavior
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Varying from common social norms. (homosexuality, nakedness)
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Deviant Behavior
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Must cause distress (depression)
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Dysfunctional Behavior
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Interferes with everyday functioning (drug abuse)
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Defining Abnormal
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No clear boundary exists between normal and abnormal behavior. Behavior is normal or abnormal in degree.
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Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)
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Identifies psychological disorders. Describes each and also indicates how prevalent the disorder is.
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How many Axis are there in Multiaxial Classification?
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5 Axis
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Anxiety Disorders
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-Characterized by feelings of excessive apprehension and anxiety:
1) Generalized anxiety disorders 2) Phobias 3) Panic Disorders 4) Obsessive-compulsive disorders 5) Post-traumatic stress disorders |
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Why don't people get tested for these disorders?
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Because of shame and denial.
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