Intro To Psych

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Cognition

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associated with thinking, knowing, remembering and communicating

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Concept

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a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas or people

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Prototypes

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a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to the prototype, provides a quick and easy method for including items in a category.

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Algorithm

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a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrast with the usually speedier-but also more error-prone-use of heuristics.

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Heuristic

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a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms

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Insight

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a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions

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Confirmation bias

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tendency to search for information that confirms one’s perceptions

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Fixation

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to see a problem from a new perspective; a impediment to problem solving

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Mental set

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a tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past.

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Functional fixedness

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tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving.

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Representativeness heuristic

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judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead one to ignore other relevant info

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Availability heuristic

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estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind, we presume such events are common.

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Framing

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the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly

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Belief bias

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the tendency for one’s preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning, sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem valid, or valid conclusions seem invalid.

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Belief perseverance

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clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited.

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Phoneme

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language, the smallest distance sound unit

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Morpheme

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in language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; maybe a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)

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Semantics

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the set or rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning.

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Syntax

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rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language.

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Babbling stage

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beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language.

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One-word stage

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the stage in speech development from 1 to 2 during which a child speaks mostly in single words

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Two-word stage

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beginning at age 2

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Telegraphic speech

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early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram- “go car_- using mostly nouns and verbs and omitting auxiliary words

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Linguistic determinism

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Whorf’s hypotheses that language determines the way we think

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Motivation

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a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

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Instinct

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a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned.

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Drive-reduction theory

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the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need.

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Homeostasis

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tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state: the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level

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Incentive

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positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior

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Hierarchy of needs

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Maslow’s pyramid of human needs beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active.

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Set point

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the point at which an individual’s “weight thermostat” is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight.

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Basal metabolic rate¬

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the body’s resting rate of energy expenditure

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Anorexia nervosa

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an eating disorder in which a normal weight person (usually an adolescent female) diets and becomes significantly (15% or more) underweight, yet , still feeling fat, continues to starve.

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Bulimia nervosa

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an eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of high- calories foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting or excessive exercises.

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Sexual response cycle

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the 4 stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson- excitement, plateau, organism and resolution

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Refractory period

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a resting period after orgasm: during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm

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Sexual disorder

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a problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning.

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Estrogen

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a sex hormone, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males. In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity.

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Testosterone

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the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and femals have it, bu the additional testosterone in makes stimulates growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty.

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Sexual orientation

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an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one’s own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation)

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Flow

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a completely involved, focused state of consciousness, with diminished awareness of self and time, resulting from optimal engagement of one’s skills.

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Emotion

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a response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behavior, and (3) conscious experience.

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James-Lange Theory

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the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion arousing stimuli

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Cannon-Bard Theory

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theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experiences of emotion

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Two-factor theory

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Schacter-Singer’s theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal

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Polygraph

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a machine, commonly used in attempts to detect lies, that measures several of the physiological responses accompanying emotion (such as perspiration and cardiovascular and breathing changes).

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Catharsis

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emotional release. In psychology, the catharsis by hypothesis maintains that “releasing” aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges

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Feel-good, do-good phenomenon

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tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood

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Subjective well-being

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self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. Used along with measures of objective well-being (for example, physical and economic indicators.

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Adaptation-level phenomenon

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our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience

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Relative deprivation

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the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself.

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Personality

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an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking

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Free association

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in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivia or embarrassing.

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Psychoanalysis

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Freud’s theory or personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts, the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions

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Unconscious

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to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware.

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Id

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sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.

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Ego

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the largely conscious “executive” part of the personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle satisfying the id’s desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain.

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Superego

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the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideal provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations.

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Psychosexual Stage

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stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id’s pleasure seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones.

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Oedipus complex

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according to Freud, a boy’s sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father.

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Identification

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process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents values into developing superegos.

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Fixation

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to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved.

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Defense Mechanisms

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in psychoanalytic theory, the ego’s protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality.

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Repression

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psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings and memories from consciousness

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Regression

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psychoanalytic defense mechanism in which individual faced with anxiety retreats to a more psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixed.

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Reaction formulation

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psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which the ego unconsciously switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites. Thus, people may express feelings that are the opposite of their anxiety arousing unconscious feelings

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Projection

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psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others.

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Rationalization

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mechanism that offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one’s actions.

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Displacement

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defense mechanism that shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable of less threatening object or person as when redirecting anger toward a safer outlet.

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Collective unconscious

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Carl Jung’s concept of a shared, inherited servitor of memory traces from our species history

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Projective test

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a personality test, such as the Rorschach or TAT, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one’s inner dynamics

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Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

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a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes.

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Rorschach inkblot test

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the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots.

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Terror-management theory

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proposes that faith in one’s worldview and the pursuit of self-esteem provide protection against a deeply rooted fear of death.

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Self-actualization

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according o Maslow, the ultimate psychological need that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one’s potential.

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Unconditional positive regard

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according to Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward another person.

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Self-concept

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over thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the questions “who am I?”

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Trait

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a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports.

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Personality inventory

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a questionnaire (often T/F or agree/disagree) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits.

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Minnesota-Multiphasic Personality Inventory- (MMPI)

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the most researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use( this test is now used for many other screening purposes.

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Empirically derived test

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a test (such as MMPI) developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups.

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Social-cognitive perspectives

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views behavior as influenced by the interaction between persons (and their thinking) and their social context.

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Reciprocal determinism

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the interacting influences between personality and environmental factors.

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Personal control

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over sense of controlling our environmental rather than feeling helpless

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External locus of control

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the perception that chance or outside forces beyond one’s personal control determine one’s fate.

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Internal locus of control

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perception that one controls one’s own fate

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Learned helplessness

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the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human earns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events.

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Spotlight effect

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overestimating other’s noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us)

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Self-esteem

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one’s feelings of high or low self-worth.

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Self-serving bias

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a readiness to perceive oneself favorably

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Psychological disorder

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deviant, distressful, and dysfunctional behavior patterns.

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Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD)

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a psychological disorder marked by the appearance by age 7 of one or more of 3 key symptoms; extreme inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.

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Medical Model

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the concept that diseases have physical causes, that applied to psychological disorders, the medical model assumes that these mental illnesses can be diagnosed on the basis of their symptoms and cured through therapy, which may include treatments in psychiatric hospitals.

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DSM-IV

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the American Psychiatric Associations Diagnostic and statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders.

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Anxiety disorders

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psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety.

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Generalized Anxiety Disorder

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an anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal.

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Panic Disorder

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an anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable minutes-long episodes of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking or other frightening sensations.

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Phobia

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an anxiety disorder marked by a persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific object or situation.

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Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

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an anxiety disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and/or actions (compulsions).

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Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

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an anxiety disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety and/or insomnia that lingers for 4 weeks or more after a traumatic experience.

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Mood Disorders

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psychological disorders characterized by emotional extremes.

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Major Depressive Disorder

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a mood disorder in which a person experiences in the absence of drugs or a medical condition, two or more weeks of significantly depressed moods, feelings of worthlessness and diminished interest or pleasure in most activities.

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Mania

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a mood disorder marked by a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state.

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Bipolar disorder

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a mood disorder in which the person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania (formerly manic depressive)

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Schizophrenia

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A group of severe disorders characterized by disorganized and delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions and inappropriate emotions and actions.

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Delusions

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beliefs often of persecution or grandeur that may accompany psychiatric disorders.

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Personality Disorders

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psychological disorders characterized by inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning.

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Antisocial personality disorders

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a personality disorder in which the person (usually a man) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrong doing even towards friends and family. May be aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist.

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Psychotherapy

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an emotionally charged, confiding interaction between a trained therapist and someone who suffers from psychological difficulties.

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Biomedical therapy

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prescribed medications or medical procedures that act directly on the patient’s nervous system.

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Eclectic approach

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an approach to psychotherapy that, depending on the client’s problems, use techniques from various forms of therapy.

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Psychoanalysis

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Sigmund Freud’s therapeutic technique. Freud believed the patient’s free associates, resistance, dreams, and transferences- and the therapist’s interpretations of then released previously repressed feelings, allowing the patient to gain self-insight.

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Interpretation

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in psychoanalysis, the analyst’s noting supposed dream meanings, resistances, and other significant behaviors and events in order to promote insight.

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Resistance

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in psychoanalysis, the blocking from consciousness of anxiety-laden material.

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Transference

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in psychoanalysis, the patient’s transfer to the analyst of emotions linked w/other relationships (such as love or hatred for a parent)

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Client-centered therapy

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a humanistic therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, in which the therapist uses techniques such as active listening within a genuine accepting, empathetic environment to facilitate client’s growth.

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Active Listening

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empathetic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and clarifies. A feature of Rogers client-centered therapy.

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Behavior therapy

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therapy that applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviors.

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Counter-conditioning

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a behavior therapy procedure that conditions new responses to stimuli that trigger unwanted behaviors, based on classical conditioning. Includes exposure therapy and aversive conditioning.

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Exposure therapies

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behavioral techniques such as systematic desensitization, that treat anxieties by exposing people (in imagination or actuality) to the things they fear and avoid.

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Systematic desensitization

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a counter conditioning that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety triggering stimuli, commonly used to treat phobias.

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Virtually reality exposure therapy

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an anxiety treatment that progressively exposes people to simulations of their greatest fears, such as airplane flying, spiders, or public speaking.

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Aversive conditioning

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a type of counter conditioning that associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as drinking alcohol).

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Token economy

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an operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the token for various privileges or treats.

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Cognitive therapy

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therapy that teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking and acting; based on the assumptions that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions

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Cognitive- behavior therapy

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a popular integrated therapy that combines cognitive therapy (changing self-defecting thinking) with behavior therapy (changing behavior)

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Family therapy

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therapy that treats the family as a system. Views an individual’s unwanted behaviors as influenced by or directed at other family members; attempts to guide family members toward positive relationships and improved communication.

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Meta-analysis

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a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies.

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Psychopharmacology

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the study of the effects of drugs on mind and behavior.

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Tardive dyskinesia

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involuntary movements of the facial muscles, tongue, and limbs; a possible neurotoxic side effect of long-term use of antipsychotic drugs that target D2 dopamine receptors.

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Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

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a biomedical therapy for severely depressed patients in which a brief electric current s sent through the brain of an anesthetized patient.

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Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS)

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the application of repeated pulses of magnetic energy to the brain; used to stimulate or suppress brain activity.

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Psychosurgery

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surgery that removes or destroys brain tissue in an effort to change behavior.

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Lobotomy

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a now-rare psychosurgical procedure once used to calm uncontrollably emotional or violent patients, the procedure cut the nerves that connect frontal lobes to the emotion-controlling centers of the inner brain.

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Social Psychology

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the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.

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Attribution Theory

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suggest how we explain someone’s behavior- by crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition.

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Fundamental Attribution Error

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the tendency for observers, when analyzing another’s behavior to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

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Attitude

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feelings, often based on our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people and events.

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Foot-in-the-door phenomenon

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the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.

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cognitive-dissonance theory

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the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example when our awareness of our attitudes and of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes.

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Conformity

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adjusting one’s behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

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Normative social influence

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influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval.

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Informational social influence

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influence resulting from one’s willingness to accept other’s opinions about reality.

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Social facilitation

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stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others.

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Social Loafing

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the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

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Deindividuation

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the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.

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Group Polarization

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the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group

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Groupthink

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the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.

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Prejudice

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an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action.

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Stereotype

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a generalized (sometimes accurate but often over generalized) belief about a group of people.

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Discrimination

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unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or its members

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Scapegoat theory

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the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame.

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Just-world phenomenon

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the tendency of people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get.

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Aggression

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any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy.

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Frustration-aggression principle

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the principle that frustration – the blocking of attempt to achieve some goal- creates anger, which can generate aggression.

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Conflict

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a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals or ideas.

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Social trap

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a situation in which the conflicting parties by each rationally pursuing their self interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior.

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Mere exposure effect

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the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them.

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Passionate love

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an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship.

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Companionate love

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the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined.

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Equity

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condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it.

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Self-disclosure

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unselfish regard for the welfare of others.

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Altruism

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unselfish regard for the welfare of others.

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Bystander effect

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the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present.

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Social exchange theory

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the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs.

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Reciprocity norm

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an expectation that people will help not hurt, those who have helped them.

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Social-responsibility norm

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an expectation that people will help those dependent upon them.

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Superordinate goals

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shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation.

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GRIT

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Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction – a strategy designed to decrease international tensions.

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grammar

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in language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others.

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B.F. Skinner

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founder of operant conditioning in animals.

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Noam Chomsky

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critically reviewed Skinner's verbal behavior theories.

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pleasure principle

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the desire for immediate gratification. drives one to seek pleasure and to avoid pain

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instinct theory

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the view that human behavior as directed by physiological needs and by psychological wants.

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reality principle

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deferral of immediate gratification. as one matures, one begins to learn the need sometimes to endure pain and to defer gratification because of the exigencies and obstacles of reality

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glucose

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stress hormones produce glucose which increases brain activity. alert the brain when something important happens. major source of energy for body tissue. important to hunger. glucose increases, hunger decreases. vice versa.

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sexual motivation

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nature's way of making us procreate. influenced by internal physiological factors, external stimuli, and cultural expectations.

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adolescent sexuality

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american teens (compared with europeans) -have less sex, - lower rates of contraception use. - higher rates of teen pregnancy and abortion.

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erotic plasticity

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the flexibility of sexual orientation, sex drive, and sexual interests. women sexuality isn't as defined or strongly felt as man's.

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influences on sexual orientation

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no evidence of environmental factors. runs in families. identical twins more likely to share sexuality than fraternal. can manipulate orientation of fruit flies.

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the need to belong

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social attachments necessary for survival. happiness and self-esteem further the need to belong.

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predictors of happiness

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high self-esteem. optimism, outgoing, agreeable. close friendships or satisfying marriage. work and leisure that engage skills. meaningful religious faith. sleep well and exercise.

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conscious

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holds what you’re currently aware of

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Iceberg analogy

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tip= ego. closest to the water underneath= superego. id = biggest part underwater.

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psychosexual stages

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- oral stage
- anal stage
- phallic stage
- latent stage
- genital stage

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castration anxiety

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causes boy to bury sexual desire for mother in unconscious, and to identify with his father. identifying with father gives boy feeling of protection (father less likely to harm him)

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penis envy

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abandon their love relationship with their mother for a new one with their father. this shift occurs when the girl realizes she has no penis. she blames her mother for this condition. her affection is drawn to father because he does have a penis.

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neo-Freudians

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Freud’s followers
- Neo-Freudians accepted basic ideas: id, ego, superego, unconscious processes, shaping of personality in childhood, defense mechanisms
-Neo-Freudians rejected other ideas: placed more emphasis on conscious mind’s role
doubted that sex and aggression were all-consuming motivations, instead emphasizing higher motives and social interactions

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Alfred Adler

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People strive for superiority, and this stems from our efforts to conquer childhood feelings of inferiority

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Karen Horney

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Disagreed with the Freudian depiction of women – that women have weak superegos and “penis envy”
Believed that childhood anxiety, caused by the child’s dependence on caregivers, triggers our desire for love and security

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Carl Jung

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believed that middle age, not early childhood, was the key period of personality development. Believed that Freud overemphasized the pleasure principle

Collective unconscious – memories shared by all human beings (e.g. “mother” symbol)

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Abraham Maslow

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having high self-esteem pays off and gives you a better life. hierarchy of needs. focused on healthy, well-adjusted people and on the ways they strive for self-determination and self-realization. self-actualization.

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Carl Rogers

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people are basically good and strive to self-actualize. people promote our growth in 3 ways: genuine, accepting, empathic. - most people already have the natural ability to heal themselves
- therapist’s job is to create an environment that
enables the client to get in touch with the nature of the problem

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factor analysis

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- statistical procedure used to identify clusters of correlated items (factors) on a test
If two or more characteristics covary when examined across many people, they may reflect an underlying trait

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Eysenck’s Basic Personality Dimensions

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- personality characteristics can be reduced down to two dimensions:
-extraversion/introversion - emotional stability/instability

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Big Five Factors

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1. Conscientiousness 2. Agreeableness. 3 Neuroticism
4. Openness. 5. Extraversion.

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possible selves

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a person’s ideas of what he or she may become

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panic attacks

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episodes of intense dread
- feelings of terror
- chest pains
- choking
- shortness of breath
- attacks last several minutes

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agoraphobia

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fear of being in any place or situation from which escape might be difficult or embarrassing in the event of a panic attack

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word salad

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jumping from one idea to another while speaking

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hallucinations

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sensory experiences without sensory stimulation. usually auditory. takes form of voice making insulting statements or giving orders.

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positive symptoms of schizophrenia

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- delusions
- hallucinations
- bizarre behavior
- thought disorders
- the presence of inappropriate behaviors

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negative symptoms of schizophrenia

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- flattening of emotion
- low motivation
- slowing of thinking and behavior
- the absence of appropriate behaviors

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psychological therapy

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- used with psychological disorders that are believed to be learned (e.g. phobias)
- an emotionally charged, confiding interaction between a trained therapist and someone suffering from psychological difficulties

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biomedical therapy

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- usually used for disorders thought to have biological causes (e.g. schizophrenia)
- prescribed medications or medical procedures that act directly on the patient’s nervous system

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free association

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- patient says whatever comes into her head in a completely candid, uncensored manner
- thoughts may be childhood memories, dreams, recent experiences
- analyst usually sits out of patient’s view

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humanistic therapies

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- emphasizes people’s self-fulfillment
- humanistic therapists help people grow in self-awareness and self- acceptance

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group therapies

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less costly. instillation of hope. recognition of universality. opportunity to help others. improvement of social interactions. development of group cohesivenss.

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antipsychotic drugs

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act on symptoms of schizophrenia. ie. thorazine. eliminate hallucinations. more in touch with reality. block dopamine receptors.

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antianxiety drugs

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depress CNS activity. prescribed for anxiety disorders or for people who are just over-nervous or tense

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antidepressant drugs

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increase the availability of norepinephrine or serotonin. typically takes up to 4 weeks before full psychological effects are felt

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mood-stabilizing medications

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lithium.effective for people with bipolar disorder. 7 in 10 people with bipolar disorder benefit from long-term use of lithium. risk of suicide about 1/6 that for bipolar patients not taking lithium

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electroconvulsive therapy

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used for severe depression. originally people were wide-awake when 100v shocks caused violent convulsions and brief unconsciousness. Now people receive general anesthetic and a muscle relaxant. 80% show improvement, with some memory loss for the treatment period, but no brain damage

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dispositional attribution

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behavior caused by factors internal to the person

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situational attribution

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behavior caused by external factors

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role-playing

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i.e. Stanford prison experiment.

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chameleon effect

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we unconsciously mimic other people’s expressions, postures, and tones of voice

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obedience

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i.e. zap the person experiment. listened more if authority figures and fancy schools were involved.

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blame-the-victim dynamic

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the belief that it’s the victim’s own fault that they are in the situation they are in

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categorization

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dividing people into groups. this simplifying can lead to stereotyping. we recognize how greatly we differ from others in our groups. we overestimate how similar people in other groups are

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vivid cases

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memorable instances of certain events that come readily to mind

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biological influences on aggression

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genetic influences: identical twins .40 comparison. neural influences: amygdala. frontal lobe inhibits aggression. biochemical influences: higher testosterone.

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social scripts

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scripts on how to act, provided by our culture

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proximity

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mere exposure affect. how close we are to another person geographically. breeds greater attraction.

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physical attractiveness

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First impressions of a person is most affected by their physical appearance. predicts: frequency of dating, how popular a person feels, other people’s initial impressions of their personalities

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similarity

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friends and couples far more likely to share attitudes, beliefs, and interests. the more alike people are, the more their liking endures

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bystander effect

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the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

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oral stage

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mouth is a source of tension reduction (e.g. eating) and pleasurable sensations (e.g. tasting, licking, sucking) basic conflict is weaning.

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anal stage

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major event is toilet training
child must learn that there is an appropriate time and place for everything

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phallic stage

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Oedipus (Electra) Complex - children develop unconscious sexual desires for their opposite-sex parent children develop hostility, jealousy, and hatred toward same-sex parent due to competition over affection of other parent

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latent stage

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dormant sexual feelings.

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genital stage

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maturation of sexual interests.

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illusory correlations

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random events that we notice and falsely assumer are related. they arise from our sensitivity to dramatic or unusual events.

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theory of mind

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people's ideas about their own and other's mental states- about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts and the behavior these might predict.

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dissociative disorders

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conditions in which conscious awareness seems to become separated from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings.