Intro To Psych

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Cognitive neuroscience

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the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

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Dual processing

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the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

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Selective attention

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the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

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Inattentional blindness

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failling to see visible objects when out attention is directed elsewhere

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Change blindness

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failling to notice changes in the environment

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Circadian rhythm

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the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle

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REM sleep

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rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active

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Alpha waves

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the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

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sleep

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periodic, natural, reversible loss of consciousness--as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation

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hallucinations

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false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus

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delta waves

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the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep

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insomnia

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recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

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narcolepsy

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a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times

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sleep apnea

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a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings

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night terrors

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a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered.

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dream

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a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind.

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manifest content

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according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden, content)

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latent content

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according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content)

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REM rebound

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the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep)

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hypnosis

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a social interaction in which on person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors, will spontaneously occur

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posthypnotic suggestion

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a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors

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dissociation

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a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others

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psychoactive drug

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a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods

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tolerance

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the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect

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withdrawal

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the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug

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physical dependence

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a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions

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addiction

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compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences

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depressants

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drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

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barbiturates

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drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement

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opiates

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opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and axiety

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stimulants

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drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions

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amphetamines

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drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes

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methamphetamine

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a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels

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Ecstasy (MDMA)

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a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition

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hallucinogens

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psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

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LSD

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a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide)

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THC

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the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations

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near-death experience

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an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations

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sensation

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the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

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perception

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the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

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bottom-up processing

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analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information

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top-down processing

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information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

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psychophysics

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the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them

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absolute threshold

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the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time

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signal detection theory

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a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and level of fatigue

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subliminal

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below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness

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priming

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the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

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difference threshold

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the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticceable difference (or jnd)

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Weber's Law

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the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)

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sensory adaptation

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diminshed sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation

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transduction

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conversion of one ofrm of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret

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wavelength

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the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next.

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hue

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the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelenth of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth

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intensity

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the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude

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pupil

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the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters

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iris

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a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening

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lens

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the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina

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retina

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the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

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accommodation

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the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina

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rods

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retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond

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cones

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retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations

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optic nerve

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the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

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blind spot

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the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there.

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fovea

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the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster

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feature detectors

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nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement

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parallel processing

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the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Constrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving

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Youth-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory

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the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors - one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue - which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color

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opponent-process theory

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the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green.

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frequency

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the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second)

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pitch

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a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency

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middle ear

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the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window

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cochlea

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a coiled, bony, fluid-filled, tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses

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inner ear

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the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs

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place theory

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in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated

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frequency theory

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in hearing, the theory, that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch

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conduction hearing loss

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hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea

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sensorineural hearing loss

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hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness

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cochlear implant

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a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea

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kinesthesis

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the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts

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vestibular sense

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the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance

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gate-control theory

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the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.

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sensory interaction

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the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste

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gestalt

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an organized whole, Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes

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figure-ground

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the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground)

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grouping

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the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups

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depth perception

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the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance

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visual cliff

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a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

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binocular cues

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depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes

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retinal disparity

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a binocular cue for perceiving depth: By comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance - the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object

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monocular cues

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depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone

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phi phenomenon

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an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession

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perceptual constancy

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perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, lightness, and color) even as illumination and retinal images change

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color constancy

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perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object

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perceptual adaptation

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in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field

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perceptual set

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a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

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human factors psychology

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a branch of psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use

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extrasensory perception (ESP)

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the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition

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parapsychology

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the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis

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associative learning

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learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

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classical conditioning

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a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

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behaviorism

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the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

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unconditioned response (UR)

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in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

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unconditioned stimulus (US)

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in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally - naturally and automatically - triggers a response.

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Conditioned Reponse (CR)

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in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

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Conditioned stimulus (CS)

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in classical conditioning, as originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response

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acquisition

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in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

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higher-order conditioning

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a procedure in which the conditioning stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone (Also called second-order conditioning)

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extinction

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the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

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spontaneous recovery

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the reappearance, after a pause, of extinguished conditioned response

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generalization

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the tendancy, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

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discrimination

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in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

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respondent behavior

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behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

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operant conditioning

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a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

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operant behavior

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behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

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law of effect

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Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

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operant chamber

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in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain food of water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking

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shaping

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an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

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reinforcer

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in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

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positive reinforcement

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increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

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negative reinforcement

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increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such a shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after as response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment)

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Primary reinforcer

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as innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

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conditioned reinforcer

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a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer

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continuous reinforcement

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reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

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partial (intermittent) reinforcement

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reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistence to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

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fixed-ratio schedule

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in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

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variable-ratio schedule

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in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

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fixed-interval schedule

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in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

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variable-interval schedule

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in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

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punishment

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an event that decreases the behavior that it follows

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cognitive map

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a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

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latent learning

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learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

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intrinsic motivation

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a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

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extrinsic motivation

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a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

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observational learning

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learning by observing others

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modeling

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the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

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mirror neurons

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frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy.

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prosocial behavior

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positive, constructive, helpful behavior. the opposite of antisocial behavior.