Intro To Philosophy-Exam 1

Front 1

What is Philosophy?

Back 1

The non-empirical study of fundamental questions.

Front 2

What is Bertrand Russell's thesis?

Back 2

Philosophy is valuable

Front 3

Why does Russell think philosophy is valuable?

Back 3

He admits that it won't lead to useful inventions for mankind but says it:

1. Frees one's thoughts and is therefore good for the mind.

2. Expands the world (knowledge), not just oneself

3. These effects, positively afffect one's actions

Front 4

Why would a philosopher consider objections and counter-points to their own positions?

Back 4

To refine them

Front 5

What are some objections to Russel's thesis that he considers? How would he respond?

Back 5

1. Philosophy produces no definite answers to its questions.

2. If it were to produce definite answers it would no longer be philosophy but a form of science.

Response: Even when no definite answers are available, the questions are still valuable.

Front 6

What is a thought experiment? Why are they used?

Back 6

When philosophers think about (very unlikely) hypothetical cases.

1. No similar case exists

2. Extreme case needed to make a point

Front 7

What is natural theology?

Back 7

Aim is to demonstrate God's existence by means of human reason and experience. Seeks to go beyond mere faith.

Front 8

Who was one of the first to state the Cosmological Argument?

Back 8

Thomas Acquinas (13th Century)

Front 9

What is a 3 Alls God?

Back 9

1. All Good (Omnibenevolent)

2. All Powerful (Omnipotent)

3. All Knowing (Omniscient)

Front 10

The Cosmological Argument is one for this?

Back 10

Theism

Front 11

The Cosmological Argument distinguishes what 3 kinds of possible beings?

Back 11

1. Depdendent

2. Self-Existent

3. Independent

Front 12

What is a dependent being?

Back 12

One that exists b/c another being caused it to.

Front 13

What is a self-existent being?

Back 13

One that exists b/c of its own nature.

Front 14

What is an independent being?

Back 14

One that is neither dependent or self-existent. It's being is unexplained.

Front 15

What is the principle of sufficient reason (PSR)?

Back 15

Says that everything has an explanation (not that we have all explanations).

Front 16

What cannot exist in the principle of sufficient reason?

Back 16

Independent Beings

Front 17

What 2 objections to the Cosmological Argument?

Back 17

1. If successful, it only shows that a self-existent being exists, it doesn't successfully show that the being is a 3 alls God.

2. Perhaps there are some things that have no explanation

Front 18

What is moral evil?

Back 18

Evil caused by humans (slavery, murder, abuse)

Front 19

What is natural evil?

Back 19

Evil not caused by humans (natural disasters, some diseases)

Front 20

What is Mackies argument in The Problem of Evil?

Back 20

If there was a 3 alls God then he could not be all things and there sill exist the vast amount of suffering in the world. In other words, he can't be all things without sacrificing one for the other.

Front 21

What attempts to argue against Mackie's concept does he consider?

Back 21

1. Evil is due to human free will

2. Evil is a necessary means to good

3. Good cannot exist w/o evil as a necessary counterpoint.

4. Universe is better with some evil in it.

Front 22

Why does Mackie reject that evil exists due to human free will?

Back 22

Free will says that God cannot interfere or chooses not to and this makes him not all powerful and therefore not all good.

It also doesn't account for natural evil.

Front 23

Why does Mackie reject the argument that evil is a necessary means to good?

Back 23

1. If God can't produce good without producing evil, then he is not all powerful.

Front 24

Why does Mackie reject the argument that Evil is a necessary counterpart to Good?

Back 24

Once again if they are logically connected then that means that God is not all powerful. He says that red can exist without non-red, so evil should be able to exist without good.

Front 25

Why does Mackie reject the argument that the universe is better with some evil in it?

Back 25

The existence of evil makes possible higher order evils like cruelty and cowardice that cannot be explained as necessary.

Front 26

What is an unjustified belief?

Back 26

One that is not supported by evidence

Front 27

What is Clifford's thesis regarding reason and faith?

Back 27

It is wrong always, everywhere, for one to believe something upon insufficient evidence

Front 28

One could argue against Clifford by saying that what is wrong is the action not the unjustified belief. What would be his response?

Back 28

All belief are influenced by actions, including the action of reasoning and those beliefs impact everyone.

Front 29

Clifford says that belief based on insufficient evidence makes one credulous. What does this mean and what is the result?

Back 29

1. It means that one believes even in light of poor evidence.

2. This leads to one corrupting himself and his society/culture.

Front 30

What can be surmised as Clifford's thoughts on belief in God?

Back 30

1. Should not believe based on faith alone

2. Believe only if based on sufficient evidence (likely took agnostic stance)

Front 31

What is a live hypothesis?

Back 31

One that appeals as a real possibility to whom it is proposed

Front 32

What is a dead hypothesis?

Back 32

One that does not appeal as a real possibility to whom it is proposed.

Front 33

What is a living option?

Back 33

One b/x two live hypothesis

Front 34

What is a dead option?

Back 34

One b/w two dead hypothesis

Front 35

What is a Forced Option?

Back 35

One that cannot be avoided

Front 36

What is an Avoidable Option?

Back 36

One that can be avoided. You can do neither option and still function.

Front 37

What is an option?

Back 37

A decision b/w two hypotheses.

Front 38

What is a momentous option?

Back 38

An option for a hypothesis that is important and unique/once in a lifetime

Front 39

What is a trivial option?

Back 39

One that is neither important not unique.

Front 40

What are genuine options?

Back 40

Ones that are living, forced, and momentous.

Front 41

James considers the choice b/w religion and non-religion as being this?

Back 41

Genuine (and thus momentous) option.

Front 42

Why does James think it is okay to believe in God?

Back 42

The risk of not believing and missing out on both the possible truth and the benefits is too great, even in the absence of evidence.

Front 43

What is Pascal's Wager?

Back 43

If you believe that God exists you reap the benefits if he does and if he does not you have lost nothing.

Front 44

Nagel says you can't conceive of your non-existence from where? Can only from where?

Back 44

1. From the inside

2. Only from the outside (3rd person)

Front 45

This says that death is (at least sometimes) bad for the person that dies? Why?

Back 45

1. Harm Thesis

2. It takes away all pleasurable earthly experiences

Front 46

What are 3 objections to the harm thesis?

Back 46

1. Epicurus says death is nothingness (however you may physically hurt when you die)

2. Lucretius says that we can image life before birth as being non-existence and death is just a return to that. (however our pre-birth non existence was temporary after death it is permanent)

3. Immortality would be boring (how do we know?)

Front 47

What are Gettier Cases?

Back 47

Cases of justified true belief that seem to not be knowledge. (ex: you may see the clock as 2:30 but it is just a lucky belief, because you may not know that the clock is actually working)

Front 48

What is knowledge?

Back 48

Justified True Belief (JTB)

Front 49

What is Nagel's argument for skepticism state?

Back 49

We cannot know anything about the external world because our beliefs about it fail to be justified.

Front 50

According to Nagel all evidence about anything has to come from this?

Back 50

Your Mind

Front 51

Nagel says that we can't directly experience this? Only this?

Back 51

1. External World

2. Our minds

Front 52

What would a skeptic of the existence of the external world say?

Back 52

Our beliefs about it's existence are unjustified because we don't know for sure if it truly exists, we only know what is in our mind.

Front 53

According to Descartes what are foundational beliefs?

Back 53

Ones that are known and thus justified--i.e. self-justified. They are the beliefs that all others are based upon

Front 54

What is Descartes seeking to do with his essays?

Back 54

Prove that God exists and the soul is distinct from the body.

Front 55

What are Descartes 3 methods of doubt (aka-3 skeptical hypothesis)?

Back 55

1. Senses can deceive and most knowledge comes from senses.

2. You can't prove that you aren't dreaming

3. Belief in existence of evil through a malicious demon. Reality is a false construct by this demon.

Front 56

What are the things that Descartes knows for sure that make him believe in external reality?

Back 56

1. He knows that he exists

2. He knows that he thinks

Front 57

What is Descartes famous phrase "Cognito" mean?

Back 57

I think therefore I am

Front 58

What is the "I" that Descartes refers to?

Back 58

The thinking being that has sensory perceptions.

Front 59

What is Descartes solution to removing doubt?

Back 59

Weaken the claim by stating that something "seems" to be the case.

Front 60

What does Descartes need to overcome skepticism?

Back 60

A bridge principle

Front 61

What is a bridge principle?

Back 61

Says that how things seem is how they are.

Front 62

How would one say that Descartes' theory fails?

Back 62

Because he requires that a foundational belief be based on certainty and his model only shows that certainty can exist in ones own mind and does not prove external existence.

Front 63

What are Moore's 2 Proofs of an External World?

Back 63

1. That he has hands proves that there are 2 external things and thus an external world.

2. The fact that these hands existed in the recent past proves that existed in the past.

Front 64

What are the 3 necessary conditions for a rigorous proof?

Back 64

1. Conclusion differs from premise

2. Conclusion is valid consequence of premise (can be imagined to be true)

3. Premise of proof is known to be true.

Front 65

What would a skeptic of Moore's argument state?

Back 65

Since the premises cannot be conclusively proven they are thus not known to be true and by Moore's own definition cannot be considered to be true.

Front 66

What is the summation of Moore's views?

Back 66

That common sense beliefs should be foundational beliefs and that Descartes requirement of foundational beliefs being certain is too extreme.

Front 67

It is important to note that the definition of knowledge does not include this?

Back 67

The presence of certainty.

Front 68

What was the book that deemed philosophy as important? Written by whom?

Back 68

"The Value of Philosophy" by Bertrand Russell

Front 69

This book introduced an important argument regarding religion?

Back 69

"The Cosmological Argument" by William Rowe

Front 70

This book discussed the concept of a 3 All's God?

Back 70

"Evil and Omnipotence" by J.L. Mackie

Front 71

This article introduced the idea of insufficient evidence?

Back 71

"The Ethics of Belief" by William Clifford

Front 72

This article acted as a counterpoint to Clifford's work?

Back 72

"The Will to Believe" by William James

Front 73

This is the textbook used for the class?

Back 73

"What Does it All Mean?" by Thomas Nagel

Front 74

This person wrote extensively about foundational beliefs?

Back 74

"Meditations on First Philosophy" by Rene Descartes

Front 75

This article stated that Descartes' theory was too rigid and that common sense beliefs should suffice?

Back 75

"Proof of an External World" by G.E. Moore