Reading...
Play button
Play button
Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
291 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
Number of primate species
|
390 species of extant primates; 649 species and subspecies overall
|
|
|
Global Primate Diversity
|
Neotropics (36%), Madagascar (24%), Africa (20%), Asia (20%)
|
|
|
First primates
|
~50-60 million years ago
|
|
|
First hominins
|
5-7 mya
|
|
|
First Homo Sapiens
|
~200,000 years ago
|
|
|
Prosimians
|
most ancient primates; modern day descendatns still possess many primitive traits (lemurs, lorises, tarsiers)
|
|
|
Anthropoids
|
diurnal, greater emphasis on vision, relatively large brains (New World/Old World monkeys, hominoids)
|
|
|
diurnal
|
active during the daytime
|
|
|
Platyrrhines
|
-include New World Monkeys
-round, sideways facing nostrils |
|
|
Catarrhines
|
-include Old Word Monkeys & Hominoids (humans,apes)
-narrow, downward facing nostrils |
|
|
Prosimians
|
found only in the old world, but that was not the case in the past
|
|
|
General Characteristics of Primates
|
1. arboreal
2. grasping hands and feet 3. nails (vs. claws) 4. forward-facing eyes (binocular vision) 5. Post-orbital bar/enclosure 6. big brains 7. social |
|
|
Primate hands and feet
|
-5 digits (ancestral condition)
-prehensile |
|
|
prehensile
|
capable of grasping objects
|
|
|
Binocular vision
|
-created by forward facing eyes
-overlapping fields of vision allow for depth perception -allows for increased visual abilities and reduced dependence on smell |
|
|
Haplorhines
|
-anthropoids and tarsiers
-evolved fully enclosed sockets to protect eyes -tend to rely heavily on vision |
|
|
Strepsirhines
|
-prosimians except tarsiers
-mainly nocturnal primates with decreased reliance on visual input |
|
|
Advantages of group living
|
-predator detection/defense
-access to food -access to mates -offspring care assistance |
|
|
Who studies primates?
|
-biologists
-psychologists (cognitive capacities) -anthropologists (behavior) |
|
|
How do nonhuman primates inform human evolution?
|
-morphology
-ecology -sociality -cognition |
|
|
How do living nonhuman primates inform us about human morphology?
|
-primate teeth inform about diets
-low, rounded molars in chimps similar to australopithecus -Austra probably consumed fruits, nuts/seeds, tubers based on comparison to chimps |
|
|
How do living nonhuman primates inform us about behavior?
|
-sexual dimorphism acts as a morphological indicator of male competition
-sexual dimorphism vs. sexual monomorphism |
|
|
sexual dimorphism
|
-differences in size between the sexes
-associated w/male competition and dominance over females -e.g. gorillas |
|
|
sexual monomorphism
|
-males and females of similar size/strength
-associated w/equality in relationships -e.g. gibbons |
|
|
Hominoidea
|
-gibbons
-sexually monomorphic -"lesser apes"; small body size |
|
|
Classification Schemes
|
-activity patterns
-diet -habitat use -ranging and territoriality -grouping patterns -mating system |
|
|
cathemeral
|
active day or night
|
|
|
nocturnal
|
active during night; inactive or sleeping during day
|
|
|
activity budgets
|
-how primates allocate time to essential activities
-rest, feed, travel, other |
|
|
possible activity patterns
|
-diurnal
-cathemeral -nocturnal |
|
|
Diet types
|
-insectivores=insects
-faunivores=non-insect vertebrates -frugivores=fruits -folivores=plants (leaves, stems, bark, etc) |
|
|
Categories of Habitat Use
|
-terrestrial=ground-dwelling
-semi-terrestrial=partially ground-dwelling -arboreal=tree-dwelling |
|
|
Rainforest vegetation
|
-forest floor=ground level
-understory=area below trees, but above ground -canopy=forest cover -emergent trees=crown above canopy |
|
|
Daily Path Length
|
-"Day Range"
-distance traveled each day |
|
|
Home Range
|
area used by a primate
|
|
|
territorial primates
|
defend the entire resource area that they exploit from intrusion by other members of their species
|
|
|
Grouping categories
|
-multifemale/multimale
-one male/multifemale -one female/multimale -one female/one male -grouping patterns do not equal mating system |
|
|
stable social groups
|
group composition remains stable
|
|
|
fission-fusion
|
group composition is fluid, depending on ecological or social factors
|
|
|
Mating systems
|
-monogamy
-polygyny -polyandry -polygamy |
|
|
monogamy
|
-single male & single female
-e.g. callitrichids, owl monkeys, titi monkeys |
|
|
polgyny
|
-single male and multiple females
-nocturnal prosimians/orangutans |
|
|
polyandry
|
-single breeding female and multiple males
-moustached tamarins |
|
|
polygamy
|
-multiple males and females
-chimps |
|
|
Garner
|
-1890s
-traveled to Gabon to observe great apes |
|
|
Robert Yerkes
|
-1916 article in Science calling for primate research insitute
-The Great Apes, 1929 |
|
|
The Great Apes
|
-Robert & Ada Yerkes
-1929 |
|
|
Mary Hastings Bradley
|
-1920s w/husband Carle Akely
-gorilla specimens for Natural History museum |
|
|
Clarence Ray Carpenter
|
-1931-34
-observed howler monkeys on Barro Colorado island -spider monkeys in Panama |
|
|
Cold Spring Harbor Symposia of Quantitative Biology
|
-1950s
-129 biologists met to discuss human evolution/other topics |
|
|
Sherwood Washburn
|
-studied w/Carpenter
-physical anthropologist -specialized in primate anatomy -encouraged study of wild baboons using ethnographic methods |
|
|
Jeanne & Stuart Altmann
|
-1960s-70s
-long-term study of yellow baboons in Amboseli, Kenya |
|
|
1960s Great Apes Researchers
|
-Louis Leakey: chimps, gorillas, orangutans
-Jane Goodall: chimps -Dian Fossey: mountain gorillas -Birute Galdikas: orangutans |
|
|
dental formula
|
-shorthand method of describing the number of each type of tooth in half the mammal jaw
-incisors: canines, premolars; molars, humans: |
|
|
Old Work Monkey Dental Formula
|
2:1:2:3
--------- 2:1:2:3 |
|
|
Human Dental Formula
|
2:1:2:3
--------- 2:1:2:3 |
|
|
Prosimian traits
|
-retained primitive traits
-more closely resemble early primate ancestors -single claw on a hand/foot -rely on smell -slightly smaller brains -small size and solitary -many nocturnal |
|
|
Lemuroidea
|
-prosimian
-endemic to Madagascar -vertical clingers/leapers |
|
|
Body Size Energetics
|
-eating is related to body size
-smalles primates (<500g): insects and gums -smaller (<10kg): frugivore-insectivores -larger (>10kg): frugivore-folivores |
|
|
Lemur diet
|
-mouse: small, so fruit, gums, invertebrates
-ring-tail: fruits, leaves, flowers |
|
|
Lemur Sociality
|
-some multi-male/multi-female groups
->25% live in monogamous pairs -female dominance=priority food access |
|
|
Aye Aye Dental Formula
|
1:01:3
--------- 1:0:0:3 |
|
|
Aye Aye: Location, Diet, Unique traits, Social
|
-only Madagascar
-insects -specialized middle finger -post-orbital bar -solitary |
|
|
Loridae family
|
-lorises (south Asia)
-pottos (Africa) -galagos=bushbaby (Africa) |
|
|
Lorise: Type, Family, Location, Diet, Social, unique traits
|
-prosimian
-loridae -found in Southern Asia -insects, fruit -solitary or small groups -move slowly; don't leap |
|
|
Galagos: Type, Family, Location, Diet, Social, unique traits
|
-also "bushbaby"
-prosimian -found in Africa -some fruit, majority animal/insect prety -solitary or small groups -good leapers |
|
|
"Toilet Claw"
|
-also "grooming claw"
-all prosimians -specialized claw/nail used for personal grooming |
|
|
"Tooth Comb"
|
dental structure of strepsirhines used in grooming
|
|
|
Loridae dental formula
|
2:1:3:3
--------- 2:1:3:3 |
|
|
Tarsiers unique traits
|
-small body size, 4-5 oz.
-each eye is bigger than their brain -can rotate head 180 degr. |
|
|
Tarsiers diet
|
-only animal prey
-nocturnal hunters -mostly insects |
|
|
Tarsiers Dental Formula
|
2:1:3:3
--------- 1:1:3:3 |
|
|
Tarsiers Social
|
-pairs or small social groups
-do not carry infants |
|
|
Strepsirhines vs. Haplorhines
|
-alternative classification to prosimians/anthropoids
-strep=primates w/wet noses -hapl=primates w/out wet noses |
|
|
Tarsier Traits resembling Anthropoids
|
-no reflective tapetum
-no wet noses -post-orbital closure -monthly sexual swellings in female |
|
|
Tarsiers Range
|
SE Asia
|
|
|
Ceboidea group
|
-New World Monkeys
-found in South America (and into Central America) -Callitrichids -Cebids -Pithecids -Atelids |
|
|
Marmoset & Tamarins Range
|
South/Central America
|
|
|
Marmoset & Tamarins Dental
|
2:1:3:2
--------- 2:1:3:2 |
|
|
Marmoset & Tamarins Diet
|
Gum, Insects, Fruit
|
|
|
Marmoset & Tamarins Social
|
-Pairs
-Female dominance -twins -paternal care |
|
|
Callitrichids
|
-tamarins and marmosets
|
|
|
Cebids
|
-squirrel monkeys
-capuchins -owl monkeys |
|
|
Pithecids
|
-saki monkeys
-uakaris |
|
|
Atelids
|
-spider monkeys
-howler monkeys -woolly monkeys |
|
|
Marmoset & Tamarins Unique traits
|
claws except nail on hallux (back/thumb-like) digit
|
|
|
Cepids Range
|
South/Central America
|
|
|
Cepids Dental
|
2:1:3:3
--------- 2:1:3:3 |
|
|
Pithecids Dental
|
2:1:3:3
--------- 2:1:3:3 |
|
|
Atelids Dental
|
2:1:3:3
--------- 2:1:3:3 |
|
|
Owl Monkeys Size, Range, Diet, Social
|
-1 kg
-South/Central America -fruit, leaves, insects -monogamous pairs -1 offspring/year -paternal care |
|
|
Squirrel Monkeys Size, Range, Diet, Social
|
-800 g
-South/Central America -fruit, insects -1 offspring/year -season breeding -large groups (20-50) |
|
|
Capuchins Size, Range, Diet, Social
|
-M=3.5 kg; F=2.5 kg
-South/Central America -fruit and animal matter -groups between 8-30 -sexually dimorphic |
|
|
Capuchins unique traits
|
-prehensile tail
-tool use: cracking nuts/clams -relatively large brain size |
|
|
Pithecids Range, Size, Social, Unique traits
|
-Guinas, Suriname, NE Brazil
-2-3kg -range of social org.; some mono, some fission-fusion -dental specialization for hard foods |
|
|
Atelids Social
|
-groups
-male dominant |
|
|
Spider Monkeys Range/Habitat, Size, Social, Diet, Unique traits
|
-Yucatan & Amazonia/upper canopy of rainforests
-7-9kg -fission-fusion social org. -fruit -prehensile tail -brachiation |
|
|
brachiation
|
swinging through trees using only arms
|
|
|
fission-fusion social organization
|
large groups that split up during the day
|
|
|
Muriquis/woolly monkey Range, Size, Social, Diet, Unique traits
|
-Brazilian atlantic coast
-8-10 kg -groups -frugivorous/folivorous -prehensile tail -slow life histories |
|
|
howler monkeys Range, Size, Social, Diet, Unique traits
|
-South Mexico to Argentina; varied habitats
-sexually dimorphic (4-8 kg) -groups -most folivorous NWP -prehensile tails -more rapid life histories -small day ranges/sedentary -juveniles rely on mother's milk to compensate for dietary shortfalls |
|
|
Subfamilies of Old World Monkeys
|
-cercopithecinea
-colobinae |
|
|
Cercopithecine examples
|
-macaques
-mangabeys -baboons |
|
|
Cercopithecoid general traits
|
-diurnal
-larger than new world monkeys -partly terrestrial -tails are not prehensile -ischial callosities |
|
|
ischial callosities
|
-rump callus on Old World Monkeys
-enable sleep sitting upright |
|
|
Cercopithecinae diet
|
-cheek pouch monkeys
-consume mostly fruit and some leaves |
|
|
Colobinae diet
|
-leaf monkeys
-predominately leaves and some fruit |
|
|
Colobinae examples
|
-langurs
-colobus monkeys -proboscis monkey |
|
|
Colobinae feeding adaptations
|
-no cheek pouches
-sacculated (chambered) stomach -small incisors -bilophodont molars w/shearing crests |
|
|
Cercopithecoidea "Politics btwn sexes"
|
-sexual dimorphic
-group living=dominant w/multiple females |
|
|
matrilocal societies
|
-living in same group as one's matrilineal kin
-many baboons, macaques |
|
|
Limiting resources for females
|
-food resource availability
-likely to be competition among females over food -dictates distribution of females |
|
|
Limiting resources for males
|
-mating opportunities
-competition over mates |
|
|
Competition and hierarchical relationships among females
|
-patchy food=dominance hierarchy through aggression
-dispersed food=egalitarian |
|
|
egalitarian
|
equality of all individuals; especially in political, economic, or social life
|
|
|
egalitarian dominance interactions
|
-bi-directional
-higher dominates lower -low can challenge high |
|
|
nepotism
|
patronage bestowed or favoritism shown on the basis of family relationship, as in business and politics
|
|
|
nepotistic dominance interactions
|
-uni-directional
-higher dominates subordinates |
|
|
Resident-egalitarian groups
|
-females stay in natal group
-weak female hierarchies -e.g. patas monkeys, mangabeys |
|
|
Resident-nepotistic groups
|
-females stay in natal group
-strict hierarchy around kin -e.g. macaques, baboons |
|
|
Sherwood Washburn
|
-American physical anthropologist
-encouraged new techniques to study human evolution -encouraged use of ethnographic methods to study wild baboons |
|
|
Baboons general: sub-family, genus, habitat
|
-sub-family: cercopithidae
-genus: Papio -semi-terrestrial -open woodland savanna habitats |
|
|
Olive baboon
|
-Papio anubis
-~equatorial, west/central/east Africa |
|
|
Yellow baboon
|
-Papio cynocephalus
-South-west Africa |
|
|
Hamadryas baboon
|
-Papio hamadryus
-North-East Africa |
|
|
Guinea baboon
|
-Papio papio
-North-west Africa |
|
|
Chacma baboon
|
-Papio ursinus
-southern-east africa |
|
|
Baboon social system
|
-multi-male, multi-female groups
-~20-80 -females always remain natal -males emigrate @ adult to breed |
|
|
Female Baboon relations
|
-dominance hierarchy via agression
-female respect means stable female rank over long periods -female coalitions based on kinship -female bonding enhances infant survival |
|
|
Male Baboon relations
|
-dominance hierarchy determined by fighting ability
-male coalitions based on rank/fighting ability -less stable ranks than females |
|
|
Baboon consortships
|
-consorting pair may lag behind
-female choice among mates -females may choose males based on "friendships" (mutual cooperation) |
|
|
Macaques general
|
-Old World Monkeys
-subfamily: cerpithecinae -genus: Macaca -radiated across Africa and Asia (widest geo range except Homo) |
|
|
Macaque social system
|
-multi-male, multi-female
-mostly matrilocal, sometimes females transfer -some nepotism |
|
|
separating interventions
|
-dominant individual observes and breaks up alliances
-e.g. chimps, gelada baboons, and japanese macaques |
|
|
Rhesus Macaques relationships
|
-despotic
-strict matrilineal -uni-directionality of aggresion -post-conflict relationship repair = ~7% |
|
|
Bonnet Macaques relationships
|
-egalitarian
-dominance hierarchy -bi-directionality -post-conflict relationship repair = ~29% |
|
|
Apes general
|
-hominoids
-large bodied -big, complex brains -Y-5 cusps on molars -suspensory climbers -no tail |
|
|
Hominoid examples
|
-orangutans
-bonobos -gorillas -gibbons -chimpanzees -humans |
|
|
Hominoidea Dental formula
|
2:1:2:3
--------- 2:1:2:3 5 cusps, Y-shape pattern vs. Old World monkeys (4) |
|
|
Hominoidea ambulation/movement
|
-quadripedal
-suspension climbers -adaptations: broad torso, long arms, short legs |
|
|
Gibbons general: habitat, adapts, size
|
-"lesser apes"
-small body size -sexually monomorphic -arboreal -rain forests in eastern/southeastern Asia -long forearms, mobile shoulder |
|
|
Gibbon social system
|
-pair-bonded social groups
-adult male+female+offspring -variation in social units -extra pair copulations not uncommon |
|
|
Gibbon diet
|
-fruits, supplemented with leaves
-feed in forest canopy |
|
|
Gibbon locomotion
|
-brachiation=hand-over-hand swinging from branch to branch
-adapts: long arms, mobile should, elongated fingers for hooking branches, short branches |
|
|
Gibbon Communication
|
-use to defend territory
-sing loud songs/duets |
|
|
Major orangutans
|
-Bornean orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus)
-Sumatran orangutan (Pongo abelii) |
|
|
Orangutan habitat/location
|
-borneo
-sumatra |
|
|
Orangutan size
|
-sexual dimorphism
-Males ~ 85 kg/120 lbs -Females ~ 40 kg/85 lbs |
|
|
Sagittal Crest
|
ridge of bone running down the center of the top if the skull that serves to anchor chewing muscles
|
|
|
Orangutan secondary sexual characteristics
|
-males = sagittal crest, large canines
-possible male cheek flanges=fleshy pads on face help project vocal |
|
|
Morphotypes of male orangutans
|
-unflanged vs. flanged
-unflanged=sexually mature, no cheek pads or largynal sac -flanged=cheek pads and large largynal sac |
|
|
Orangutan Male Mating strategies
|
-flanged=long calls to attract females to him
-unflanged=roam to find females |
|
|
Orangutan long calls
|
long series of reverberating grunts emitted by flanged males
|
|
|
Orangutan Female Mating strategies
|
-female choice in mates
-females prefer flanged males |
|
|
Orangutan Locomotion
|
-agile climbers/hangers
-quadrumanous=all 4 feet adapted as hands -arboreal |
|
|
Mast fruitings
|
-orangutan forests
-every 2-10 years 88% of trees fruit at same time |
|
|
Orangutan Diet
|
-mostly fruit
-fluctuates depending on food availability -leaves,bark increase in lean times |
|
|
Orangutan Social System
|
-solitary
-adult males alone except to mate -social group=mother and infant |
|
|
Major Gorilla types
|
-Eastern/Mountain gorilla (Gorilla beringei)
-Western gorilla (Gorilla gorilla) |
|
|
Gorilla habitat/location
|
West=central west africa
Eastern=eastern congo |
|
|
Gorilla size
|
-up to 400 lbs.
-largest primates -sexual dimorphism |
|
|
Sexual dimorphism in Gorillas
|
-most pronounced of all apes
-males ~ 2x females -males large canines -males have sagittal crest |
|
|
Gorilla locomotion
|
-knuckle walking = all four limbs touch ground, weight of arms rest on knuckles
-agile climbers |
|
|
Gorilla diet
|
-Eastern/mountain=folivorous, very little fruit
-Western=more frugivorous |
|
|
Gorilla social system
|
-breeding group=at least one male and one breeding female (~7-8 individuals)
-solitary male = single silverback -bachelor group=silverbacks + immature males (rare in wild) |
|
|
Gorilla breeding group
|
-single male, multi-female
-"harem" groups -silverback is dominant -silverback mitigates conflicts, helps care for/protect offspring |
|
|
Female Gorilla dispersal
|
-leave natal group, avoid inbreed
-join group or solitary male -may transfer groups multiple times |
|
|
Male Gorilla dispersal
|
-disperse before full adult
-solitary, breeding group, or bachelor group -must attract females for success |
|
|
Male Gorilla Reproductive Success adapt
|
-larger body size/sagittal crests
-infanticide in takeover group (rare) -offspring care/protection |
|
|
Common Chimpanzee (name)
|
Pan troglodytes
|
|
|
Chimpanzee Location
|
Equatorial Africa, mostly western Africa
|
|
|
Chimpanzee Size
|
slight sexual dimorphism; males ~45kg/ 100 lbs & females ~ 35kg/80lbs
|
|
|
Chimpanzee Locomotion
|
knuckle walking; climbing and hanging; terrestrial + arboreal
|
|
|
Chimpanzee Diet
|
frugivorous; diverse diet influenced by habitat conditions; tool use
|
|
|
Tool use
|
use of detached object to achieve a goal; chimps most skilled tool users besides humans
|
|
|
Chimpanzee Habitats
|
range from savannas to dense tropical forests
|
|
|
Quality of Tropical Forest Habitat
|
higher tree diversity; canopy coverage; high rainfall
|
|
|
Quality of Savanna Habitat
|
low tree density; sparse canopy; high temp; more predation pressure
|
|
|
Chimpanzee Adaptations for High Temps
|
more terrestrial; increased rest; cave use; well-digging; pool parties
|
|
|
Unique chimp traits
|
tool use; self-recognition in mirror; extended altruism/adoptions
|
|
|
Chimpanzee Social System
|
individual- based fission-fusion social system; community of several parties of 4-10 individuals; party influenced by demographics, resources, mating
|
|
|
individual- based fission-fusion social system
|
subgroups of varying size and composition; subgroups are not predictable (e.g. Chimps)
|
|
|
fission-fusion social system
|
group members reside in same home range but separate into smaller subgroups on regular basis
|
|
|
group- based fission-fusion social system
|
subgroups consist of formalized, stable groups; groups are predictable (e.g. Gelada Baboons)
|
|
|
Patrilocal
|
living in the same group as one's patrilineal kin
|
|
|
Patrilocal Societies
|
males reside in natal group and females dispers; promotes strong male bonds; e.g. chimps and bonobos
|
|
|
Chimpanzee Male Bonding/Cooperation
|
bonding through proximity, grooming, social support; allows securing position in social hierarchy, mate-gaurding, hunting, territory defense
|
|
|
Chimpanzee Male Dominance Hierarchy
|
linear dominance hierarchy; fission-fusion society makes alpha domination difficult b/c political maneuviring may occur
|
|
|
Chimpanzee Male Lifestyle
|
Alpha males displays frequently/more matings; higher rates of aggresion; aggression in reunion and sexual competition
|
|
|
Chimpanzee Female Lifestyle
|
aggression occurs in plant-food competition and protection; inflation of sex skin indicates ovulation
|
|
|
Sexual Swellings role
|
multi-male/multi-female, breed year round; acts as indicator for males; social pasport for chimp dispersal
|
|
|
Conditions for high male competition for females
|
scarcely distributed receptive females: every female as monopolizeable resource
|
|
|
Conditions for low male competition for females
|
females not monopolizeable; receptive females abundant; female choice overrides male strategies
|
|
|
Bonobo/Chimpanzee Mating system
|
polygamous (both sexes mate w/multiple partners); promiscuity among females (social passport or paternity confusion hypothesis)
|
|
|
Chimpanzee Hunting
|
all chimps; many in groups; Tai shows energentic benefit but Gombe/Ngogo do not
|
|
|
Bonobos (name)
|
Pan paniscus; pygmy chimpanzees
|
|
|
Bonobos vs. Chimps
|
pink vs. dark lips; dark vs. light-faced infants; Bonobos "lighter" build, more bipedal; middle hair part
|
|
|
Bonobo Location
|
near chimps, more central-equatorial Africa
|
|
|
Bonobo males vs. females
|
some sex dimorph; males=canines, no sagittal crest; males~40kg/95lbs and females~30kg/70lbs
|
|
|
Bonobo diet
|
frugivorous; similar to chimps but more leaves/herbs
|
|
|
Bonobo Social System
|
fission-fusion community; patrilocal; female dominance; higher degree of socialization between sexes; sex as social interaction; G-G rubbing
|
|
|
G-G Rubbing
|
genital-genital rubbing; embrace and rub swellings together; develops relationships, reconcilation, tension regulation
|
|
|
Humans characteristics
|
hominoidea; large, complex brains; juvenile dependence; long post-reproductive life; extreme cooperation; complex communication; extensive social learning; cumulative culture
|
|
|
Human substistence method
|
hunter-gatherers for 95% of our existence
|
|
|
E.E.A.
|
Enivornment of Evolutionary Adaptedness=social, tech, and ecological conditions under which human mental abilities evolved
|
|
|
Types of human adaptations
|
biological adaptations (to cold weather/altitude), cultural adaptations; technology
|
|
|
Human Body Size
|
little dimorph (compared to other apes); Males~120lbs/55kg and Females~100lbs/45kg; no canine dimorph
|
|
|
Human Locomotion
|
bipedalism=moving on two legs; characterized by striding
|
|
|
Central Place Foraging
|
behavior of a forager that must return to a particular place to consume its food, or to share food w/mate or offspring
|
|
|
Unique Human Foraging Techniques
|
-central place foraging
-residential mobility=camp moves to access new patches -cooking -cooperative foraging=sexual division of labor -sharing and provisioning |
|
|
Human Diet
|
-hunter-gatherers
-meat, fruit, roots -more meat than any other hominoid (50% of diet) |
|
|
Human Social Systems
|
-large variation in culture, economics, politics, etc.
-typically egalitarian w/male-female pair bonds -monogamy, polygyny and polygamy all occur -high social learning -cumulative culture |
|
|
Human Dispersal patterns
|
-either sex may disperse
-co-reside=bro/sis move to same group -genetically unrelated residential groups |
|
|
Human Fission-Fusion Society
|
-tribe rarely in same place
-many camps or bands -daily foraging parties |
|
|
Hazda (general)
|
-last full-time hunter-gatherers in Africa
-1000 total w/300-400 as h-g -no crops, no livestock, no permanent shelters |
|
|
Hazda location
|
-north-central Tanzania
-Rift Valley -Serengeti Plateau -agriculture encroaching on their territory |
|
|
Frank Marlowe
|
-Harvard
-studying Hadza in 1995 for a while |
|
|
Hazda Camp structure
|
-relatives, in-laws, friends
-no official leaders -individual autonomy -no adult has more wealth or authority than any other |
|
|
Hazda Lifestyle
|
-women gather fruit/tubers
-men gather honey/hunt -young children w/mothers -toddlers stay in camp -older children help forage -4-6/day pursuing food |
|
|
Hazda Hunting
|
-poison arrows
-prey: wildebeest, warthog, zebra, buffalo, bush pig, baboon -scavenge elephant carcasses |
|
|
Ba'Aka (general)
|
-hunter-gatherers in W Congo Basin
-"pygmy" people=small stature as adaptation -"forest peoples" -tribes found across central Africa |
|
|
Aka Diet
|
-plants, insects, honey, animals
-trade w/farmer neighbors for agricultural goods |
|
|
Aka Lifestyle
|
-hunt w/bows
-gather honey, yams, leaves, nuts, caterpillars -shifting camps follow resources |
|
|
Paternal Care in Aka
|
-hold infants 22% of day vs. 2.6% in other h.g. societies
-helps prepare for cooperative net hunts |
|
|
Ba'aka Social Aspects
|
-egalitarian
-fission-fusion social structure -interactions w/forest e.g. Jengi=spirit of forest, word common to all forest people |
|
|
Characteristics of Primate Brains
|
-larger than expected
-more complex than most mammals -large area for body control/coordination -large area for visual, learning, intelligence -increased convolution (folding) of cerebral cortex |
|
|
Allometry
|
study of change in proportion of various body part as a consequence of different growth rates
|
|
|
Human Brain:Body Size Ration
|
-predictable brain:body size ratios for primates
-human brain is 3x expected brain size for our body size |
|
|
Encephalization Quotient
|
-quantification of relative brain size
-EQ = (observed brain volume)/(predicted brain volume) |
|
|
Basic Structure of Human Brain
|
-neurons process info and communicate via synapses
-cerebrum =frontal+parietal+occipital+temporal= senses/voluntary fxns -cerebellum=motion, balance, learning -medulla=involuntary actions, breathing, digestion |
|
|
gregarious primates
|
feed, travel, sleep in groups; most diurnal primates
|
|
|
solitary primates
|
rarely seen w/other individuals except during mating or infant dependency
|
|
|
Aspects of living in groups
|
tolerance of conspecifics; relationships with other group members
|
|
|
Why live in groups?
|
-increased ability to detect predators
-improve food access -better access to mates -offspring care assistance |
|
|
Predator avoidance in diurnal primates
|
selects for group living; protection due to vigilance, group deterrence, lower individual susceptibility
|
|
|
Vervet Monkey vocalizations
|
-can signal presence of different predators, elicits different avoidances
-helps with protection from predators |
|
|
Group Living and Food Access
|
-groups may defend food resources
-individuals benefit from communal knowledge and cooperative foraging |
|
|
Cooperative foraging
|
-benefits: access new foods, share foods
-e.g. cape hunting dogs, humans |
|
|
parental investment
|
parental behaviors that increase the probability that offspring will survive; e.g. infant care
|
|
|
alloparent
|
individual that care for an infant but is not a parent
|
|
|
Disadvantages of group living
|
-increased competition for food/mates
-higher disease risk -interference w/reproduction |
|
|
Cost of group living: competition
|
-scramble competition=when resources not easily monopolized; first-come basis
-contest competition=direct conflict from monopolizable resources |
|
|
Cost of group living: interference w/reproduction
|
infanticide may occur when newly dominant males want to initiate female sexual cycling
|
|
|
stable groups
|
cope w/enviro and social influences while maintaining group cohesion; most diurnal primates
|
|
|
fission-fusion social systems
|
change group composition on regular basis to meet the demands of different situations
|
|
|
Types of primate social groups
|
-multi-male, multi-female (most common)
-one male, multi-female (second-most ) -one female, multi-male -one female, one male (least common) |
|
|
Multi-male, multi-female groups
|
45%; most common type of group; capuchins, langurs
|
|
|
One male, multi-female
|
34%; male unrelated to females; e.g. Black/White Colobus and Patas monkeys
|
|
|
One Female, Multi-Male
|
cooperative polyandrous group; e.g. marmosets and tamarins
|
|
|
One Male, one Female
|
pair bonded for life; relatively rare; e.g. Titi monkeys
|
|
|
"Supergroups"
|
several social groups aggregate; functions: maximize resource knowledge, exploit superabundant resource, "family reunion", cultural events
|
|
|
Individual primate responsibility within groups
|
-maintain relationships w/kin in group
-associate w/non-kin in group -encounters w/non-group members |
|
|
large group size associated with...?
|
complex social cognition to help maintain/organize relationships
|
|
|
Social structure (definition)
|
Summary of the nature, quality, patterning of relationship
|
|
|
Social Relationships (definition, examples)
|
Content, quality, and patterning of interactions; e.g. mother-infant, consort relationship, male-male
|
|
|
Examples of interactions among individuals
|
grooming, play, cooperation
|
|
|
Prosociality
|
acts of help that benefit others; comforting=emotional support; informing=giving useful info; instrumental helping=acting on behalf of others'; sharing=giving things to others
|
|
|
Requisites for Prosociality
|
1. Sensitivity to external stimuli (signals of need, social distance, audience)
2. intrinsic motivation (reactive, proactive) |
|
|
Components of Instrumental Helping
|
1. understanding other's behavior/goals and intentions
2. motivation to help others |
|
|
Prosociality in Humans
|
specific types of prosociality have been considered uniquely human; e.g. intrinsic motivation to help
|
|
|
Cooperation in Humans
|
human society depends on individuals ability to cooperate; cooperation is complicated b/c involves recruitment, coordination, and dealing w/benefits
|
|
|
Components of cooperative behavior
|
1. recognize need for help
2. actively recruit others 3. agree on joint action 4. recognize others roles in success |
|
|
Primate collaboration
|
chimps are capable of spontaneous cooperation, tolerance and relationships play an important role in performance; bonobos show even proactive prosocial sharing; may be limited to strategies that generate immediate benefits b/c no language
|
|
|
Life history theory
|
study of how characteristics of an organism's life cycle affect reproduction
|
|
|
General Life History Framework
|
Embryonic development --> birth --> weaning --> growth --> maturity --> reproduction/maintenance --> death
|
|
|
Prenatal stages of life
|
zygote=fertilized egg; embryo=growth from 2-8 weeks; fetus=growth from 8 weeks-birth
|
|
|
infancy
|
birth until weaning (up to 3 years in nonindustrial); depend on mother
|
|
|
alloparental care
|
infant care provide by individuals other than parents; extra caregivers decrease infant mortality
|
|
|
parent-offspring conflict
|
mothers begin weaning before infant wants to wean (conflict of interest); infants will resist weaning
|
|
|
Sex differences in primate development
|
-different rates of development
-die at different times -treated differently by group members |
|
|
distance curve
|
measure of size over time (e.g. height/weight vs. time); used to track growth
|
|
|
velocity curve
|
measure of the rates of change in growth over time; shows growth spurts
|
|
|
childhood
|
weaning until end of growth in brain weight (7 years old)
|
|
|
juvenile
|
end of childhood to adolescence (weaning to sexual maturity); primates have long juvenile periods
|
|
|
Extended juvenile period in primates
|
provides opportunity to learn motor/social skills; learning how to be an adult: foraging, predator detection/response, social skills, fighting abilities
|
|
|
adolescence
|
sexual maturity (puberty) and spurt in body growth; ~10 years in females/12 years in males
|
|
|
adulthood
|
complete physical maturity
|
|
|
reproductive lifespans
|
age at maturation and longevity affect; timing of reproduction/reproductive history
|
|
|
Fast life history
|
mature early and large number of offspring, die "young:; e.g. mice
|
|
|
Slow life history
|
mature delayed and fewer offspring, die "old"; e.g. orangutans
|
|
|
Primate life history strategy
|
mature later, have fewer offspring, live longer, significant parental care vs. other mammals
|
|
|
Human life history
|
humans mature later and live longer than other primates; humans have long post-reproductive life; slow rate of reproduction
|
|
|
menopause
|
permanent cessation of menstrual cycles; occurs before the end of average human life span; occurs almost exclusively in humans
|
|
|
mother hypothesis
|
more adaptive later in life for women to expend time and energy insuring the survival of their existing children than to produce more children
|
|
|
grandmother hypothesis
|
post-menopausal women can help their daughters raise children, which increases their inclusive fitness
|
|
|
Comparing birth internals in Apes
|
-orangutan=7 yrs
-gorilla=4 yrs -chimps=5 yrs -humans=3 yrs |
|
|
Advantage of extended childhood
|
allows more time for brain development and learning
|
|
|
parental investment
|
parental behaviors that increase the probability that offspring will survive
|
|
|
mother-infant bond in primates
|
infants completely dependent; important b/c of physical nourishment/protection and social comfort/socialization; strongest bond in primate societies
|
|
|
Harry Harlow
|
American psychologist; interested in primary caregiver/love; rhesus monkey experiments w/surrogate mothers
|
|
|
Biological/social basis of maternal care
|
mother-infant bond is part of biological basis of mammals; specific behaviors are learned from own mother
|
