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175 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Psychology
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the science of behavior and the mind
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2 themes
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1. We're all connected
2. It's all in your mind |
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what are neurons?
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unit of computation
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Describe the 3 main parts of a neuron
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dendrite(s): receives info from other neurons
soma: cell body, decides what to do with the info, sends action potential to => axon: to other neurons |
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synapse
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gaps between neurons through which chemicals,
not electricity can travel |
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prosopagnosia
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not being able to recognize faces, usually b/c of damage to the fusiform gyrus
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fMRI
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deoxygenated hemoglobin is more paramagnetic than
oxygenated hemoglobin, active brain regions have a high ratio of oxygenated to deoxygenated hemoglobin |
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name 2 areas of the brain and what they process
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Parahippocampal Place
Area: scenes Fusiform Face Area: faces |
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attention blink
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display face and scene in the midst of scrambled images, we're bad at finding the second one
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False Memory Paradigm
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think you remember word that is close (can tell in parahippocampal gyrus, can't in hippocampus)
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Overt vs Aversive discrimination
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aversive is unintentional, eg: black and hispanic drivers pulled over in florida (5% on road, 80% of people pulled over)
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2 important aversive discrimination studies
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What's in a name? Tamika Jackson or Emily Sullivan
▪ by Sendhil Mullainathan, MIT ▪ same resume, different name ▪ 30% more callbacks Shooter Bias: Targets of discrimination: Effects of race on responses to weapons holders (Diallo, street vendor, 41 bullets) Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, was conducted by Anthony G. Greenwald, Professor of Psychology, University of Washington |
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Why is there prejudice?
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need to categorize, conditioning, in-group/out-group bias
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Academic Spurters Experiment:
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Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968)
▪ only thing that was different was that they were selected ▪ do better in classes |
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Ways to test aversive discrimination:
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Implicit Association Test: Mahzarin Banaji and Anthony Greenwald ('59)
young-negative, old-positive is difficult, can figure out implicit associations conditioning: electric shock with butterfly and snake: how long until people stop responding to expectation of shock (extinction), takes longer outside of race |
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stereotype threat
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people's perceived risk that they might do something that supports an unfavorable stereotype about their group
◦ eg. write race on the test, take it, more stress if minority, lowers score (Claude Steel, Stanford) ◦ suppresses test performance eg Asian woman (gender score down, race score up) |
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What can reduce prejudice?
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familiar, well-liked faces reduce/negate IAT
common goal: Sherif's Robber's study |
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Ben Barres
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transgender researcher: "Barres' work is much better than his sister's"
peer reviewers award lower competence scores to female scientists than to similarly productive male scientists (Wenneras & Wold, 1997) |
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What is intelligence?
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manufactured concept for practical goals (will change dependent on the
context) "Goal-directed adaptive behavior" (Sternberg, 2001) Spearman's g: a single, basic attribute (level of performance on one task correlated positively with level of performance on all of the others) |
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Intelligence Tests
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Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale: oriented to skills required for school work
Stanford-Binet Scale: Intelligence Quotient = mental age/chronological age * 100 Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-III) ▪ Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-III) ▪ Normed on data from large samples of individuals in various age groups, bell curve |
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psychometric approach (to intelligence)
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▪ Measurement of individual differences in behaviors and
abilities |
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Cattell's Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence
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2 components to g:
fluid:the ability to process information crystallized: the accuracy and amount of information available for processing **higher fluid intelligence correlated with higher lateral prefrontal cortex activity** |
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Sternberg's Triarchic theory of Intelligence
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(MC's fav)
analytic (like fluid): learning planning and solving a problem creative: identification of novel situations that require intelligence practical: implement, adapt to, improve or leave an environment ▪ eg child street vendors in S. America, great at math, but don't understand it in a school setting |
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Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences
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1. Bodily-kinesthetic
2. Interpersonal 3. Verbal-linguistic 4. Logical-mathematical 5. Intrapersonal 6. Visual-spatial 7. Musical 8. Naturalistic |
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Music & Intelligence/development
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Baby Einstein actually bad, Mozart negligible
American Academy of Pediatrics recommends no screen media under 2 years music lessons enhance IQ (Schellenberg, 2004, Psychol. Sci) |
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Role of heredity & environment in intelligence
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both contribute: (twin studies: mono together > mono apart > di > adopted)
Terman study (mena = 151, 77 over 170), Hunter College Elementary School (IQ>155) ▪ did well in school, professionally successful ▪ no Nobel laureates or anything |
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Nature vs Nurture?
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"Nurture" group most articulated by john Locke- Babies come into the world
as blank slates MC: interplay btwn the two |
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How to test babies?
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measure how long baby looks at image: baby gets board, introduce new image
suck when they like something ◦ esp. mother's voice ◦ lang. discrimination (baba vs papa) measure cries of babies: french crying is different from german ▪ french: rising melody ▪ germany: falling contours violation of expectation ▪ if something weird is going on, baby will look at it longer ▪ Wynn Lab (Yale) |
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dishabituation
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brief increase in attention when a new stimulus (or surprising outcome) is presented (used in babies)
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core knowledge of infants
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language
physics math psychology |
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l/r : Japan, Steve Pinker "The Language Instinct"
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babies can hear distinctions up to 6 months
Mandarin study ▪ Mandarin chinese tutoring with live speaker preserved the ability ▪ not just listening, tv ("baby mao") doesn't do it |
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how do babies figure out speech?
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likely syllables:
study: 7-8months old, artificial nonsense language (Aslan, Safran and Newport 1998) "pa bi ku" |
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skin-to-skin contact
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Monkeys (Harry Harlow): cloth mother provides more comfort
Preemies & kangaroo care: less fussy, smarter |
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Jean Piaget
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children are not mini adults (quantitative and qualitative differences in their thoughts)
construct new mental processes as child interacts with environment 1.Sensory Stage 2. Preoperational Stage 3. Concrete Operational Stage 4. Formal Operations Stage (not as concrete as he thought) |
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Sensory stage
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birth-18 months
use sensory-motor capabilities to explore and gain understanding of environments (no object permanence...was wrong) |
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Preoperational Stage
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18 months-6 years
ability to represent the world inside your head |
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egocentric
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children only learn in the preoperational stage that the experimenter doesn't see what they see
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Keil's Transformation Experiments
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raccoon=> skunk-like
kindegarteners think it is a skunk, 2nd graders know it's a raccoon still |
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theory of mind
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ability to represent and infer unobservable mental states such as desires, intentions and beliefs from the self and others
Lack this: autistic kids (probably), deaf kids with hearing parents test with false belief task (where will he look for the $20) |
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autism
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possibly lack theory of mind
symptoms: repetitive actions, narrow focus of interest, deficits in social interactions and language acquisition (Yale Child Study Center) |
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Concrete Operation Stage
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6-11 years
can perform mental operations on concrete objects and learn about numbers and relationships |
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Formal Operations stage
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11 years on
abstract, hypothetical situations logical, systematic, deductive reasoning, planning |
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Delayed Gratification
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Marshmallow Experiment (Walter Mischel at Stanford)
measure of self-control and indicator of future success |
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observational learning
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social referencing
Bobo dolls: learn aggression |
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behavior
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observable actions of human beings and non-human animals
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structuralism
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analysis of the basic elements that constitute the mind
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functionalism
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study of the purpose mental processes serve in enabling people to adapt to their environment
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behaviorism
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the scientific study of observable behavior (inner mental processes are private events that cannot be studied scientifically)
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cognitive psychology
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the scientific study of mental processes, including perception, thought, memory and reasoning
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mindbugs
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disruptions to the mind and behavior, allow us to better understand the normal functions of the mind and behavior
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cognitive neuroscience
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attempts to link the brain with the mind through studies of brain-damaged and healthy patients using neuroimaging techniques that allow glimpses of the brain in action
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evolutionary psychology
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adaptive value of the mind and behavior and seeks to understand current psychological processes in terms of abilities and traits preserved by natural selection
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Paul Broca
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had a patient who could only say "Tan", understood language but not speak it
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stimulus
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sensory input from the environment
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Gestalt psychology
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a psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts
(Wertheimer) |
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dissociative identity disorder
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involves the occurrence of two or more distinct identities within the same individual (Felida X)
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psychoanalysis
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bringing unconscious material into conscious awareness
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reinforcement
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the consequences of a behavior determine whether it will be more or less likely to happen again
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capgras syndrome
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close person replaced by an imposter
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empiricism
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(orig a greek school of medicine stressing observation)
any attempt to acquire knowledge by observing objects or events |
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operational measures should be:
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valid, reliable, and powerful
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construct validity
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relationship between the operational definition and the property
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predictive validity
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does the score relate to what you want to measure?
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power
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ability of a measure to detect differences that do exist and not detect differences that don't exist
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factors that allow one to conclude that changes in an independent variable caused changes in a dependent variable (in an experiment)
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1. inferential statistics show that random assignment was unlikely to have failed
2. the experiment is internally valid (need random sample of participant) |
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difficult to study people because:
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complexity, variability, reactivity (to being watched)
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electromyograph
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device that measures muscle contractions under the skin
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demand characteristics
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those aspects of a setting that cause people to behave as they think an observer expects them to behave (hinders observation of "normal behavior")
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example of expectation influencing results
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Rosenthal and Fode: maze-bright rats
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third-variable correlation
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two variables are correlated only because each is causally related to a third variable (can never rule it out entirely)
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independent variable
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variable that is measured
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transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
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mimic brain damage
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3 main types of neurons
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sensory, motor, interneurons
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overflow of neurotransmitters in the synapse are dealt with by:
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reuptake, enzyme deactivation or the action of autoreceptors
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examples of neurotransmitters
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acetylcholine (voluntary muscle control),
norepinephrine (mood and arousal), serotonin (sleep and wakefulness, eating and aggressive behavior), dopamine (motor behavior, motivation, pleasure and emotional arousal) |
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The nervous system is divided into:
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the central nervous system (brain+spinal cord)
the peripheral nervous system (somatic nervous system+autonomic nervous system) |
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The autonomic nervous system is divided into:
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the sympathetic nervous system (prepare for action)
the parasympathetic nervous system (return to rest) |
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the brain can be divided into :
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the hindbrain (life-sustaining)
the midbrain (orientation) the forebrain (motivation and emotion) |
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the forebrain can be divided into :
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the cerebral cortex (control over the body, higher level operations)
the subcortical structures (limbic system) |
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the cerebral cortex can be divided into:
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two hemispheres
or lobes (occipital, temporal, parietal and frontal) |
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neurons
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cells in the nervous system that communicate with one another to perform information-processing tasks
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cell body (soma)
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coordinates information-processing tasks, and keeps the cell alive
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dendrites
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the part of a neuron that receives information from other neurons
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axon
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transmits information to other neuron, muscles or glands
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myelin sheath
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insulating fatty layer covering the axon
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glial cells
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support cells found in the nervous system, make up the myelin sheath
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synapse
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the region in between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite of the next
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action potential
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an electrical signal that is conducted along an axon to the synapse (all-or-nothing)
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terminal buttons
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knoblike structures that branch out from an axon (filled with vessicles filled with neurotransmitters)
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agonists
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drugs that increase the action of a neurotransmitter
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antagonists
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drugs that block the action of a neurotransmitter
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nervous system
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•
• • • • interacting network of neurons that conveys electrochemical information throughout the body |
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cerebellum
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large structure of the hindbrain that controls fine motor skills, fine-tunes, not initiates (Purkinje cell layer)
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contralateral control
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right controls left
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corpus callosum
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connects large areas of the cerebral cortex on each side and supports communication of information across hemispheres
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occipital lobe
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processes visual information
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parietal lobe
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processes info about touch
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temporal lobe
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responsible for hearing and lang
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thalamus
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(forebrain) relays and filters info from the senses (except smell) and transmits info to the cerebral cortex
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hypothalamus
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1. fighting
2. fleeing 3. feeding 4. mating |
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hippocampus
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creating memories
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amygdala
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plays a central role in many emotional processes, esp formation of fear memories
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somatic nervous system
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set of nerves that carry info into and out of the CNS (under our control)
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autonomic nervous system
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carries involuntary commands to blood vessels, organs and glands
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heritability
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measure of the variability of behavioral traits among individuals that can be accounted for by genetic factors (0 -> 1)
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Wernicke's area
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opposite of Broca; can talk but not understand
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Gage
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had a metal bar stuck in his skull. turned from nice to rude
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electroencephalogram (EEG)
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used to record electric activity in the brain
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the retina is composed of three layers:
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photoreceptors (rods for low-light and cones for color)
bipolar cells retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) |
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sensation
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simple awareness due to the stimulation of a sense organ
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perception
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the organization, identification and interpretation of a sensation in order to form a mental representation
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transduction
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when many sensors in the body convert physical signals from the environment into neural signals sent to the CNS
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absolute threshold
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the minimal intensity needed to just barely detect a stimulus (vs jnd)
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just noticeable difference (JND)
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the minimal change in a stimulus that can just barely be detected (Fechner)
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Weber's law
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the jnd of a stimulus is a constant proportion despite variations of intensity (eg weight = 2%)
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signal detection theory
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the response to a stimulus depends both on a person's
sensitivity to the stimulus in the presence of noise and on a person's response criterion (cautious?) |
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sensory adaptation
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sensitivity to prolonged stimulation tends to decline over time as an organism adapts to current conditions
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visual acuity
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ability to see fine detail (snellen chart)
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length, amplitude and purity are perceived as:
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color, brightness and saturation
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retina
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light-sensitive tissue lining the back of the eyeball
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blind spot
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contains neither rods nor cones and therefore has no mechanism to sense light (where the optic nerve leaves the eye)
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fovea
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an area in the center of the retina where the vision is clearest and there are no rods at all
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area VI
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the part of the occipital lobe that contains the primary visual cortex
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template
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a mental representation that can be directly compared to a
viewed shape in the retinal images |
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monocular depth cues
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aspects of a scene that yield information about depth when viewed with only one eye (distance and size)
▪ linear perspective ▪ familiar size ▪ relative size ▪ texture gradient ▪ interposition ▪ relative height in the image |
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binocular disparity
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the difference in the retinal images of the two eyes that provides information about depth
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motion parallax
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depth cue based on the movement of the head over time (far away objects don't appear to move, close ones zip by)
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sound
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frequency, amplitude and complexity (pitch, loudness and quality)
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cochlea
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a fluid filled tube that is the organ of auditory transduction
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basilar membrane
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a structure in the inner ear that undulates when vibrations from the ossicles reach the cochlear fluid
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hair cells
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specialized auditory receptor neurons embedded in the basilar membrane
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area A1
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a portion of the temporal lobe that contains the primary auditory cortex (mostly right rhythm/music, left lang)
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place code
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the cochlea encodes different frequencies at different locations along the basilar membrane
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temporal code
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registers low frequencies via the firing rate of action potentials entering the auditory nerve
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haptic perception
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active exploration of the environment by touching and grasping objects with our hands
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types of fibers that feel pain:
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A-delta fibers: initial sharp pain
c fibers: duller pain |
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referred pain
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sensory info from internal and external areas converge on the same nerve cells in the spinal cord (eg heart attack felt in the left arm)
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gate-control theory
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signals arriving from pain receptors in the body can be stopped or gated by interneurons in the spinal cord via feedback from two directions
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olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs)
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receptor cells that initiate the sense of smells
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olfactory bulb
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a brain structure located above the nasal cavity beneath the frontal lobes
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pheromones
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biochemical odorants emitted by other members of their species that can affect the animal's behavior or physiology
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taste buds
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the organ of taste transduction (hundreds in each papillae)
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5 tastes
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salt, sour, sweet, bitter, umami (savory)
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illusory correlation
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seeing a strong pattern of relationship btwn two things when actually little or no relationship exists (think smaller group committed bad acts > 50% of time, when really 1/3)
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perpetual confirmation
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the tendency for observers to perceive what they expect to
perceive |
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self-fulfilling prophecy
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phenomenon whereby observers bring about what they expect to perceive (students writing race/gender on SAT)
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subtype
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when a person clearly disconfirms the stereotype, create a substerotype
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ratio IQ
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a statistic obtained by dividing a person's mental age by the person's physical age and then multiplying it by 100
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deviation IQ
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a statistic obtained by dividing a person's test score by the average test score of people in the same age group and then multiplying the quotient by 100
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three-tiers
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g (general factor) => group factors (m) => specific factors (s)
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fluid intelligence
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the ability to process information
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crystallized intelligence
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the accuracy and amount of information available for
processing |
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prodigies
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people of normal intelligence who have an extraordinary ability
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savants
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people of low intelligence who have an extraordinary ability
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heritability coefficient (h^2)
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statistic that describes the proportion of the difference
between people's scores that can be explained by differences in their genetic makeup |
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shared environment
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those environmental factors that are experienced by all relevant members of a household
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zygote
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single cell that contains chromosomes from both a sperm and an egg
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stages of development in the womb:
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zygote
germinal stage (2 weeks from conception) embryonic stage (2nd-8th week) fetal stage (9th week - birth) |
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teratogens
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agents that damage the process of development, such as drugs
and viruses (FAS) |
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reflexes
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specific patterns of motor response that are triggered by specific patterns of sensory stimulation
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cephalocaudal rule ("Top-to-bottom" rule)
and proximodistal rule ("inside-to-outside" rule): |
tendency for motor skills to emerge in sequence from the head to the feet and from in to out
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cognitive development
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the emergence of the ability to understand the world (Jean Piaget! sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational)
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sensorimotor
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a stage of development that begins at birth and lasts
through infancy in which infants acquire information abotu the world by sensing it and moving around within it |
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assimilation
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infants apply their schemas to novel situations
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accommodation
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infants revise their schemas in light of new information
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object permanence
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the idea that objects continue to exist even when they are not visible
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conservation
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the notion that quantitative properties of an object are
invariant despite changes in the object's appearance (can do this at concrete-operational, not preoperational) |
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egocentrism
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the failure to understand that the world appears differently to
different observers |
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strange situation
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a behavioral test used to determine a child's attachment's style: secure, insecure-avoidant, insecure-resistant/ambivalent, disorganized
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temperaments
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characteristic patterns of emotional activity
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preconventional stage
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a stage of moral development in which the morality
of an action is primarily determined by its consequences for the actor (going to jail, blamed for wife's death) |
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Conventional stage
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a stage of moral development in which the morality of
an action is primarily determined by the extent to which it conforms to social rules (breaking a law, failing to fulfill a duty) |
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postconventional stage
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a stage of moral development at which the morality of an action is determined by a set of general principles that reflect core values (life is more important than shopkeeper's profits)
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primary sex characteristics
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bodily structures that are directly involved in reproduction (eg menstruation)
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socioemotional selectivity theory
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younger adults are generally oriented toward the acquisition of info that will be useful to them in the future, whereas older adults that are generally oriented toward information that brings emotional satisfaction in the present
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