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283 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is the fundamentantal goal of research for haelth and human services
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develop and advance a body of knowledge to guide professional activity 4
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What are the 5 reasons to learn about the research process?
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1. systematically build knowledge and test treatment efficacy
2. impact health policy and service delivery 3. participate in research activities 4. enhance understanding of daily practice 5. Become a critic as a consumer of research literature p. 4 |
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definition of research by kerlinger
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systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of natural phenomena guided by theory and hypotheses about the presumed relations among such phenomena p.6
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Book definition of research
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multiple, systematic strategies to genearte knowledge about human behavior, human experience, human environments in which the thinking and action processes of he researcher are clearly specificed so that they are logical understandable, confirmable, and useful. p.6
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naturalistic inquiry
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wide range of research focus on understanding and interpreting human experience within the context in which experience occurs p.7
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Experimental-type research
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focus on prediction and hypothesis testing p. 7
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idiographic
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focus on specific phenomena in context and highlight complexity of phenomenon. Naturalistic inquiry tends to be like this p.7
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Nomothetic
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characterize what is typical about one or more groups. Experimental type research is like this p.7
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epistemology
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way of knowing and obtaining knowledge p. 7
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Deductive reasoning
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moving from general principle to understand something specific p. 8
Primarily experimental hypothesis then tested, relationship tested between, verifying what is already true, single separate realities exist (pp 1&2) |
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Inductive Reasoning and Actions
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moving from a specific case to broad generalization about the phenomenon p. 8
primarily naturalistic, rules evolve, search for rules or patterns during study, no accepted truth before it begins (pp) |
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Abductive Reasoning
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the iterative process of naturalistic inquiry. Development of new theoretical propositions that account for a set of observations p.9
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Research has to have these four basic characteristics
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Logical
understandable confirmable useful p.11 |
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Identify the ten essentials of research
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• identify a philosophical foundation
• frame a research problem • determine supporting knowledge • identify a theory base • develop a specific question • select a design strat • set study boundaries • obtain info • analyze information and draw conclusions • share and use research knowledge p. 14 |
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logical positivism
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there is one truth independent of the investigator to be discovered
p. 15 |
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Evidence Based Medicine
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the integration of the best research evidence with clincial expertise and patient values (P&G 1)
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Evidence Based Decision Making
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The formalized process of using the skills for identifying, searching for and interpreting the results of the best scientific evidence, which is considered in conjunction with the clinician's experience and judgment, the patient's preferences and values, and the clinical/patient circumstances when making patient care decisions.
(P&G 1) |
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Forces driving the need to improve quality of care (in terms of EBDM from P&G course)
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1. variations in practice,
2. slow translation and assimilation of the scientific evidence into practice, 3. managing the information overload, and 4. changing educational competencies that require students to have the skills for lifelong learning (p&g 1) |
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What are the four concepts that are involved in the Ven Diagram of the EBDM process?
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Scientific Evidence
Clinical/Patient Circumstances Experience and Judgment Patient Preferences or Values (P&G 1) |
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Which type of reasoning is this?
• no accepted "truth" before the study begins • researcher searches for general rules or patterns • researcher generalizes rules from individual cases |
Inductive Reasoning (ppt 1&2)
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Which type of reasoning is this?
• Develop new theoretical propositions account for a set of observations • theory becomes validated and modified as a PART of the research process. • data analyzed for their own patterns and concepts |
Abductive Reasoning (ppt 1&2)
(not like testing a hypothesis, theory is like saying "maybe this") |
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What kind of reasoning is this?
• verifying what is already accepted as true. • hypotheses are derives and then formally tested • single, seperate realities exist • leads to understanding of a specific case from a general principle |
Deductive Reasoing
(ppt 1&2) |
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T or F Evidence alone is sufficient to make a clinical decision
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FALSE (P&G 1)
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Of the following, which is the highest form of clinical evidence?
a. Case Reports b. Cohort Studies c. Ideas, Editorials, Opinions d. In Vitro |
b. Cohort Studies
As listed from highest to lowest.. Meta-Analysis Systemic Reviews Cohort Case Control Case Reports Ideas Editorials Opinions Animal Research In Vitro (P&G 1) |
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Of the following listed, which is the highest form of clinical evidence?
a. Case Report b. Case Control Studies c. Randomized Controlled Trials |
c. Randomized Controlled Trials
As listed from highest to lowest.. Meta-Analysis Systemic Reviews Cohort Case Control Case Reports Ideas Editorials Opinions Animal Research In Vitro (P&G 1) |
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T or F The higher the form of clinical evidence, the fewer studies are available in the literature.
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TRUE
(P&G 1) |
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Which of the following are NOT a type of study or methodology of choice for Therapy and Prevention?
a. Meta-Analysis or SR b. Single Randomized Controlled Trial c. SR of Cohort Studies d. Case Control Studies e. Case Report Studies |
d. Case Control Studies
e. Case Report Studies are NOT ideal (P&G 1) |
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The Ten Essentials of Research
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Identify A Philosophical Foundation
Frame A Research Problem Determine Supporting Knowledge Identify A Theory Base Develop A Specific Question Or Query Select A Design Strategy Set Study Boundaries Obtain Information Analyze Information & Draw Conclusions Share And Use Research Knowledge |
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Theory
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Set of interrelated propositions that provide a framework for understanding or explaining phenomena
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Question
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details exact factors and characteristics or phenomena that will be examined.
(ppt. 1&2) |
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Query
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broad statement that identifies a phenomena
who what where of study and tends to get more specific as they go (ppt. 1&2) |
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Match:
Experimental-type research and natrualistic inquiry WITH question and query |
Experimental--Question
Naturalistic--Query |
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Question
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details exact factors and characteristics or phenomena that will be examined.
(ppt. 1&2) |
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Query
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broad statement that identifies a phenomena
who what where of study and tends to get more specific as they go (ppt. 1&2) |
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Match:
Experimental-type research and natrualistic inquiry WITH question and query |
Experimental--Question
Naturalistic--Query |
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parallel research design
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an experimental group with the new treatment and a control group with the standard or placebo treatment (inactive substance) are used, with pre-treatment and post-treatment measurements of health
(P&G 2) |
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Crossover research design
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the initial experimental group switches to the control group and the control group to the experimental group halfway through the experiment. After washout period when allowed to return to baseline (P&G 2)
The crossover design can only be used with respect to diseases or conditions that recur when treatment or medication are withheld, such as gingivitis. |
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Hawthorne Effect
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subjects performing better when they know they are in an experiment (p&g 2)
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What is the rule of thumb for the minimal amount of people that should be in each testing group?
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26-30 (P&G 2)
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How long do trials have to be that test chemotherapeutic agents for controlling gingivitis?
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6 months (P&G 2)
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How long do dental caries trials have to be?
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several years (P&G 2)
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Mean
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average of a set
ideal for describing a variable that has been measured on a continuous or interval scale (e.g., height, weight, or age (P&G 2) |
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Median
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middlemost value in a set of ranked date (50Th percentile). Preferable for describing the typical response for an ordinal variable (p&g 2)
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mode
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most frequent occuring value
best for describing what is typical for a categorical variable (sex, race, eye color) (p&G 2) |
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The collection of individuals that falls between one standard deviation below and one above the mean comprises approximately _____of a normally distributed population.
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68%,
two standard deviations is 95% (p&g 2) |
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What is reality?
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Ontology (23)
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How do we come to know it?
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epistemology (23)
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Philosophical foundation of experimental type research
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rationalistic, positivist, reductionist, or logical positivism (24)
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Who is David Hume?
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18th century philosopher, developed logical positivism (24)
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Logical positivism
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there is a separation between individual thoughts and what is real in the universe outside ourselves. Observation, sense data is how we can know truth and reality(24)
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philosophical foundation of naturalistic inquiry
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individuals create their own reality and thus knowledge is interrelated and interdependant. Not possible to separate the world from a person's ideas and perceptions
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Holisitic philosophies
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1. human experience is complex and cant be understood by examining parts
2. meaning is derived from individuals in their environments 3. multiple realities exist, our view determined by events through our lenses 4. those who experience are most knowledgeable about them (25) |
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What do phenomenologists believe?
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human meaning can be understood only through experience (chp 3)
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What do social "semiotic" interactionists assume?
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human meaning evolves from the context of social interaction (chp 3)
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Pragmatism
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school of though in which concepts such as truth and reality are relative and purposive (p 29)
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The three things listed in chapter two that help selecting research design strategy
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1. what you want to accomplish or purpose
2. way you think or reason about it 3. level of knowledhe development in the area to be investigated (31) |
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Integrated research
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draws on strategies from both experimental type and naturalistic inquiry traditions that may involve multiple and varied thinking and action processes. (32)
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5 sources for topic identification
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professional experience
societal trends professional trends published research existing theory p.35 |
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T or F routinely reading journals provides you an idea of what concerns and issues your professional peers believe are important to investigate.
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True p. 37
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What are the three levels of purpose?
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1. professional (usually to determine need for intervention programs, to inform professional practice or examine effectiveness)
2. Personal (interest) 3. methodological p. 38 |
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There are six questions that guide framing a problem. What are they?
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What about this topic is interesting to me
What about this topic is relevant to my practice ...unresolved in the literature What is my preferred way of knowing? what societal or professional purpose does knowing about this topic serve What resources do I have to investigate this topic. p. 38 |
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T or F It is important to review the literature to help sharpen the focus of your initial research interest and specific strategy you plan to use to conduct a study.
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True p.41
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What will help you determine....
HOW does your research fit into the current body of knowledge? |
reviewing current literature p. 42
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Which of the following is NOT a reason to review the literature?
a. find out previous research on your topic b. provide rationale for selection of your research strategy c. see how relevant current knowledge base is to problem area d. determine level of theory and knowledge development e. none of the above |
e. none of the above
These are all reasons P. 42 |
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An initial review of the literature provides a sense of the previous work done in your area and helps identify...
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1. current trends
2. contemporary debates in your field 3. gaps in knowledge base 4. ways in which the current knowledge has been developed 5. conceptual frameworks used to inform and examine your problem p.42 |
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Which of the following are NOT one of the three factors to review critically in research studies?
a. level of knowledge b. validity of the author's phd c. how knowledge is generated d. the boundaries of the study |
b. (lol)
p. 43 |
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T or F The "boundaries" of a study essentially means the same thing as the "limitations" of a study
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False, the boundaries of a study are the who, what, when and where of a study
p. 44 |
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The 6 steps to conducting a literature review
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1. determine when to conduct a serach
2. delimit what is searched 3. access databases for periodicals books and documents 4. organize the information 5. critically evaluate the literature 6. write the literature review p.46 |
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lexical concepts
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concepts that are expressed as words p. 46
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T or F. When searching for current research, most researchers look for articles written within the last 5 years. A search is extended beyond 5 years to evaluate historical development of an issue.
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True p.49
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Literature Review Chart
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select pertinent information from each article you review and record it using a chart format (ex. author, sample, design, etc) p.49-50
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Concept/Construct Matrix
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organizes information by kep concept/construct (x axis) and source (y axis) p.50
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Reductionism
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There is a single reality that can be discovered by reducing it into its parts
(3,4,5 pp) |
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phenomenologists
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human meaning can be understood only through experience without interpreting that experience (naturalistic)
ppt 345 |
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Interactionists
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human phenomena are understood through interpreting the meanings in social interaction
ppt 345 |
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pluralistic view
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multiple realisites can be understood in natural context in which human experience occurs
ppt 345 |
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"Knowing can be objective or standardized"
What kind of research is this? a. experimental b. naturalistic c. integration |
a. experimental
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"The World can only be known subjectively:"
What kind of research is this? a. experimental b. naturalistic c. integration |
b. naturalistic
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"There is value in multiple ways of knowing"
What kind of research is this? a. experimental b. naturalistic c. integration |
c. Integration
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Pragmatism
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truth and reality are relative and purposive. Mixed methods most desirable
ppt 345 |
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What is a statement that identifies the phenomenon to be explored and the reasons it needs to be examined or why it is a problem or issue?
a. research topic b. purpose statement c. problem statement |
c. problem statement
(chp 4) |
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What is the two dimensional organizational system that presents all information that the investigator review and evaluates
a. concept matrix b. literature review chart |
a. concept matrix
(chp 5) |
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Things to consider in framing a problem
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personal interest
revelance need epistemology purpose resources (ppt 345) |
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Approach to organizing a literature review in which research studies are summarized in a table format along key categories, such as type of design, measures, and outcomes
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Literature Review Chart (chp 5)
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Broad area of inquiry from which the investigator develops a more specific question or query
a. research topic b. purpose statement c. problem statement |
a. research topic (chp 4)
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Themes or persistent issues that emerge in case review, supervision, or staff conferences provide research ideas
a. professional experience b. societal trends c. professional trends |
a. professional experience (ppt 345)
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Reflected in policies, lefislation, and funding by federal, state and local government
a. professional experience b. societal trends c. professional trends |
b. societal trends (ppt 345)
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Topic areas facing your profession
a. professional experience b. societal trends c. professional trends |
c. professional trends (ppt 345)
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most published research studies identify
a. unresolved issues generated by findings b. additional research problems c. studies that need to be replicated or repeated to confirm the findings d. all of the above |
d. all of the above
(ppt 345) |
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Who are you studying, what they need and why
a. problem statement b. purpose statement |
a. problem statement (ppt 345)
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What is the difference between professional purpose and methodological purpose?
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the MAIN point of it is to fill in the body of knowledge, not to necessarily fill in professionals about a certain intervention
(in class, ppt 345) |
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Descriptive Research (ppt 345)
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not looking at predicting things, more just trying to find out about a phenomenon. Define!
(ppt 345) |
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Explanatory Research (ppt 345)
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designed to predict how things are related and what the outcomes might be (ppt 345)
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Predictive Research (ppt 345)
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determine specific factors that predict outcomes through testing concepts
MORE SPECIFIC than explanatory Manipulate factors to see how they affect each other |
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Which uncovers meaning by how an individual describes their experience?
a. ethnography b. phenomenology c. grounded theory |
b. phenomenology (ppt 345)
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Which is used to generate theory using primary inductive process of constant comparison?
a. ethnography b. phenomenology c. grounded theory d. Meta-analysis |
c. grounded theory (ppt 345)
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T or F. Epistemology is the preferred way of knowing
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True ppt 345
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What is the difference between primary and secondary sources?
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Primary is original, uninterpreted information. Typically scientific research, peer reviewed
Secondary is interpreted, analyzed or summarized information. (Ideas, columns, etc) (ppt 345) |
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The 1st level of abstraction
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Concept
(ppt 678) |
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T or F The concepts in an experimental study are derived through direct observation in context of phenomena
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FALSE-- they are defined before the study so that your can directly measure them during the study
(ppt 678) |
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Concept
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what a word of symbol denotes.
Directly shared by many people Basic building blocks of communication (ppt 678) |
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T or F A theory is more abstract than concrete, especially if it is generated from scratch
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True (in class)
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Referent
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a shared experience (in class)
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2nd level of abstraction
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construct
(ppt 678) |
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Construct
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the meaning behind the concept
(ppt 678) |
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A category is an example of what level of abstraction?
a. concept b. construct c. relationship d. proposition |
b. construct (ppt 678)
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3rd level of abstraction
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Relationship (ppt 678)
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4th level of abstraction
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proposition (principles) (ppt 678)
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"The amount of tooth decay is associated with fear of the dentist" This is an example of what level of abstraction?
a. concept b. construct c. relationship d. proposition |
c. relationship (ppt 678)
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T or F A study based on relationships is more concrete and less complex than a study based on concepts
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Both are FALSE, A study based on relationships is LESS concrete and MORE complex than a study based on concepts (ppt 678)
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Hypothesis
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indicated what researcher expects to find
relationship between 2 or more concepts based on theory and level of knowledge in the literature (ppt 678) |
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Relationship
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association of 2 or more concepts or constructs
(ppt 678) |
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Proposition (principles)
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set of relationships and gives them structure.
Suggests direction of relationship and the influence of each construct on the other (ppt 678) |
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the level of question that asks the question "what are" or "what is"
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Level one, descriptive questions
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Level one Questions...
a. ask "what is the relationship" b. are appropriate for an experimental design study c. builds cause and effect if two or more things d. seeks to describe a phenomenon |
d. seeks to describe a phenomenon (ppt 678)
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Level three questions
a. ask "what is the relationship" b. are appropriate for an experimental design study c. lead to research w/passive designs d. seeks to describe a phenomenon |
b. are appropriate for an experimental design study
builds cause and effect if two or more things (ppt 678) |
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What is the best way to prove cause and effect?
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experimental double blind study
(in class) |
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Surveys can be used to answer which of the following levels of questions?
• level one • level two • level three |
Level one and two
(chapter 7) |
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This forms the link between research question and design of the study. It also identifies anticipated direction of relationship between variables.
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Hypothesis (ppt 678)
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T or F To be able to predict something requires a less complex design
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FALSE, it required a MORE complex design
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What is the difference between associative vs. causal hypotheses?
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Associative-- shows the relationship between variables
Causal--it's direct cause and effect of two things (blue causes red to do this!) |
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T or F A simple hypothesis discusses the relationship between 2 or 3 variables
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FALSE, only two variables
Complex is 3 or more variables |
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This hypothesis states there is no difference or relationship between variables
a. Postiive b. Null c. Research |
b. null
(ppt 678) |
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Breakdowns
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lack of fit between normal to you or what you expected. Stimulates subquestions in naturalistic research and further exploration
What you observe vs. what you expected to observe (chp 7) |
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a priori
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before starting
in experimental research, the questions all have to be posed before you start (chp 7) |
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How do you form an ethnography query?
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1. Establish the phenomenon
2. the setting or interest 3. discuss thinking and action processes necessary for boundaries (chp 7) |
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How is a phenomenology query different form an ethnographic query?
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phenomenology tries to determine meaning through individual experience (chp 7)
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What is the purpose of grounded theory?
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to GENERATE theory (ppt 678) or it can be used to uncover differences in what is already known (chp 7)
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What are queries like in grounded theory?
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broad query in topic are and then collect, compare, and assess relevant information to create subquestions (ppt 678)
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Sequence of experimental type research
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Problem statement
Literature review Theory Research question Design Data collection Data analysis Reporting |
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Intervening variables
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effects the other variables in the study but may or may not be the object of the study
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A conceptual definition
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abstract meaning of a variable based on existing theoretical works/literature
Ex. |
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An operational definition
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specifies exact procedures for measuring or observing the phenomena
Specific, can be studies and broken down |
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Independent variable
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the one YOU manipulate in the study
You use this to see changes is other variables |
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Dependent variables
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The one that will change based on the manipulation of OTHER variables. The thing you are wanting to measure and to be able to predict
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Which of the following is NOT something that can threaten bias?
a. regression b. inappropriate instrument c. deviation from the plan during the experiment d. sample selection favor e. unstandardized researcher training |
a. regression
This is something that is a threat to INTERNAL VALIDITY, not bias. p. 83 |
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Positive Relationship in Hypothesis
a. "As we educate on homecare, homecare effectiveness will increase" b. "After implementing medication, the disease will cease" |
a. the two move together in the same direction
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Inverse Relationship in Hypothesis
a. "As we educate on homecare, homecare effectiveness will increase" b. "After implementing medication, the disease will cease" |
b. as one increases, the other decreases
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T or F Introducing systematic procedures to minimize/eliminate as many sources of bias as possible is essential to planning a design
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True (ppt 678)
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Validity
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extent to which an investigators findings are accurate or reflect underlying purpose of study (ppt 678)
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Internal Validity
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ability of design to accurately answer research question ppt 678
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History
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effect of external events on study outcomes. A threat to interval validity ppt 678
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testing
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effect of being observed/tested on outcomes. A threat to interval validity ppt 678
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Instrumentation
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the way you get your data should be accurate and non-biased. A threat to interval validity ppt 678
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Maturation
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effect of passage of time. A threat to interval validity ppt 678
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regression
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statistical phenomenon in which extreme scores tend to cluster around the mean on repeated testing occasions. A threat to interval validity ppt 678
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Mortality
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effect on outcome cause by subject attrition. Drop out. A threat to interval validity ppt 678
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Interactive Effects
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extend to which threats influence outcome. A threat to interval validity ppt 678
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External Validity
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how well you can generalize your findings. ppt 678
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What are two threats to external validity
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reactivity: extent subject respond to being in a study and do not represent their population well
& realism: extent to how the conditions stimulate real life to the way the population is exposed (ppt 678) |
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Reactivity
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extent subject respond to being in a study and do not represent their population well. Is a threat to external validity
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Realism
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extent to how the conditions stimulate real life to the way the population is exposed. A threat to external validity
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Reliability = ________
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Reproducible
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pluralism
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multiple realities can be identified and understood only within the natural context in which human experience and behavior occur. Seen in naturalistic
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T or F Pluralism is a perspective of reality typically seen in experimental research.
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FALSE, naturalistic ppt 678
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Which kind of study is this: The findings do not necessarily have to be transferable to a bigger population
a. experimental b. naturalistic |
b. naturalistic ppt 678
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Emic Perspective
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insiders/informants way of understanding and interpreting experience ppt 678
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Etic Perspective
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systematic understanding of phenomena developed by those who are external to a group ppt 678
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This perspective of reality is the insiders way of understanding an experience
a. etic b. emic |
b. emic ppt 678
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This perspective is a systematic understanding of phenomena developed by those who are outsiders to the group.
a. etic b. emic |
a. etic ppt 678
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T or F In naturalistic research, etic and emic perspective overlap to show reality.
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True ppt 678
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Three things that show that the author has appropriate qualifications
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!. at least one well known researcher
2. history of research training 3. affiliations with a reputable institution (p&g3) |
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the Hawthorne Effect
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performing better because you know you are in a research group
(p&g3) |
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T or F Drawing conclusions of causation are more difficult in retroscpective studies
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TRUE
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What should be included in the introduction to a research report?
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DEFINE the purpose
REVIEW relevant literature Questions to be answered or Hypothesis (p&g3) |
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What should be included in the materials and methods section of a research report?
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Characteristics of the sample
Method for obtaining sample Sample Size Procedures to assign subjects to groups Data collection instruments Statistical tests used Methods to protect human rights (IRB) |
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What is the IRB?
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Institutional Review Board
(p&g 3) |
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T or F The results section of a study should present findings in the study relating to each question or hypothesis with an explanation.
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FALSE, NO explanation. Summary of findings and data only
|
|
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T or F The discussion section should discuss researchers interpretation of the results. Several explanations should be included as well as limiations of the research and comparisons with other investigators
|
TRUE
|
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Collection strategies need to be purposeful and reflect...
|
Reseacheres paradigmatic framework
Nature of research problem Design Type Practical limitations/resources (ppt 15, 16, 17) |
|
|
Triangulation/crystallization
|
use of multiple strategies or methods
Stengthen credibility and accuracy of findings (ppt 15, 16, 17) |
|
|
Three things related to observation
|
Watching
Listening Recording 168 |
|
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Observation in Experimental
|
time limited and structured
Criteria selected BEFORE Measuring system (ppt 15, 16, 17) |
|
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Observation in Naturalistic
|
takes on a participatory quality
Inductive--broadly defines field and moves into focus (ppt 15, 16, 17) |
|
|
What kind of question is this?
"Describe your dental condition" |
Open Ended
(ppt 15, 16, 17) |
|
|
What kind of question is this?
"How would you rate your dental condition? 1-10" |
Close-ended question
(ppt 15, 16, 17) |
|
|
Structured interviews
|
Asked as written, has a protocol.
Most are close-ended but open ended responses are coded and analyzed (ppt 15, 16, 17) |
|
|
Unstructured Interviews
|
Uses probing questions
Most used (ppt 15, 16, 17) |
|
|
Probing questions
|
neutral statement that encourages participant to elaborate
(ppt 15, 16, 17) |
|
|
What kind of question is this?
"Tell me more about that" a. probing b. close-ended c. intrusive |
a. probing question
(ppt 15, 16, 17) |
|
|
Strengths of Close Ended Questioning
|
Honest answers
Large group can answer in short time Compare responses Statistical analysis conducted fast (ppt 15, 16, 17) |
|
|
Limitation of Close Ended Questioning
|
uncertain how respondents understand the questions
Issues relevant to respondents may not be captured May answer socially desirably |
|
|
Strengths of Open Ended Questioning
|
Sensitive issues can be explored
Nonverbal behaviors can be captured and analyzed Issues important to respondent identified Meaning of questions to respondent can be identified |
|
|
Limitation of Open Ended Questioning
|
may not want to address sensitive things
Time required to conduct interviews and analyze Can't be easily compared |
|
|
Materials
|
objects, info, phenomena, or data that already exist
Eliminates Hawthorne Effect Ex. analyzing chart notes in a dental office, "the past two years this many people had NSPT etc.." (ppt 15, 16, 17) |
|
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Unobtrusive Methodology
|
sub-category of Materials
observing documents, objects, there is no researcher effect in the study. (ppt 15, 16, 17) |
|
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Secondary Data Analysis
|
Sub-category of Materials
reanalyzes one or more existing data sets--- information obtained for research (ppt 15, 16, 17) Purpose is to ask different questions from the data |
|
|
Artifact Review
|
meaning of object in their context
(ppt 15, 16, 17) |
|
|
Measurement
|
translation of observations into numerical values or numbers
(ppt 15, 16, 17) |
|
|
Vital Action Process in measurement
|
links theoretical concepts to concrete variables that can be objectively examined
(ppt 15, 16, 17) |
|
|
Conceptualize in measurement process
|
to identify and define what is to be measured
(ppt 15, 16, 17) |
|
|
Operationalization in the measurement process
|
to determine level of measurement and select scaling technique
(You would ask---does it measure what I want it to (validity)? And is it consistant (reliable) (ppt 15, 16, 17) |
|
|
Discrete Variable
|
Finite number of distinct values (like gender)
(ppt 15, 16, 17) |
|
|
Continuous Variable
|
variables that take on an infinite number of values (age)
(ppt 15, 16, 17) |
|
|
Nominal Measurement
|
Categorical Information
Uses names to attribute to a variable, not ordered, mutually exclusive categories |
|
|
Ordinal
|
Ranking in Order--- but there is no SPECIFIC interval between them
Numerical Values Implies Magnitute, arbitrary spacing between categories, no equal intervals |
|
|
Interval
|
Numbers that share characteristics of ordinal and nominal measures
Equal spacing between categories Continuous Variables Zero is arbitrary (ppt 15, 16, 17) |
|
|
Ratio
|
#'s have all characteristics of previous levels but also have an absolute zero point
|
|
|
Likert-Type Scale
|
Ex. Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree, or Strongly Disagree
Usually scored on 5-7 point range |
|
|
Guttman Scale
|
unidimensional or cumulative scale
Small number of items that relate to one concept and arranges items into hierarchy so endorsement of 1 item means an endorsement of items below it Example Does fluorite prevent caries? Do you use fluoride? Favor Public fluoridation? Favor mandated fluoridation? (ppt 15, 16, 17) |
|
|
Semantic Differential Scale
|
series of opposites or mutually exclusive constructs
Example I feel my dental condition is excellent, good, fair, poor, hopeless (ppt 15, 16, 17) |
|
|
Content Validity
|
degree to which indicator agrees with instrument of the same kind.
Hard if there isn't an agreed upon conceptualization for the concept---done through experts (ppt 15, 16, 17) |
|
|
Criterion Validity
|
Correlation between measurement of interest and another instrument that has been shown to be accurate w/2 types
(ppt 15, 16, 17) |
|
|
Concurrent Validity
|
Sub cat of criterion validity
extent to which an instrument discriminate absence or presence of known standard (ppt 15, 16, 17) |
|
|
Predictive Validity
|
extent instrument predict or estimate occurrence of a behavior
Sub cat of criterion validity (ppt 15, 16, 17) |
|
|
Discriminant
|
correlation between instrument and measures expected to be different
What is NOT associated with measure (ppt 15, 16, 17) |
|
|
Construct Validity
|
used when theoretical rationale underlies instrument
Finds evidence of relationship of instrument to construct (ppt 15, 16, 17) |
|
|
Validating a Scale
|
validates content, criterion and contstruct
Consult w/ someone who is familiar with measurement development. (ppt 15, 16, 17) |
|
|
Psychometric properties
|
does instrument conform to adequate standards of measurement that demonstrated reliability and validity
(ppt 15, 16, 17) |
|
|
Self Report
|
rate themselves
(ppt 15, 16, 17) |
|
|
Proxy/informant
|
someone familiar with target person to rate that person.
Validity issue with relationship (ppt 15, 16, 17) |
|
|
Direct Observation
|
measures real time performance, task oriented and structured
HIGHLY trained raters (ppt 15, 16, 17) |
|
|
Chart Extraction
|
info from recordings from provider notes and charts
(ppt 15, 16, 17) |
|
|
Four Main Gathering Information Principles in Naturalistic Research
|
Investigator Involvement
Inductive info collect and analyze Time commtment in the field multiple info gathering strats |
|
|
Immersion
|
spend sufficient time to get info in naturalistic study, Striving for saturation (investigator no longer surprised by responses)
(ppt 15, 16, 17) |
|
|
Saturation
|
events outcomes become redundant
investigator no longer surprises by responses (ppt 15, 16, 17) |
|
|
Naturalistic Data Collection view as 4 interrelated parts and considerations
|
• selecting context/ getting into the field
• learning the ropes • maintaining relations • leaving the field (ppt 15, 16, 17) |
|
|
Considerations in Gaining Access
|
• presenting study to participants
• confidentiality • minimizing investigator impact on natural context (ppt 15, 16, 17) |
|
|
Watching and Listening in Naturalistic
|
Passive Observation -- little if any interaction
Nonparticipant observer-- record field notes while watching or when leave Participant Observation--engage in research context to understand it Broad observations to narrow focus to discover meanings of observations |
|
|
4 components of asking
|
Access--what are you willing to speak to me?
Description-- broad questions (tell me about) Focus-- emerging descriptive knowledge, asking goes more indepth Verification-- checking accuracy of impressions with informants |
|
|
Steps for preparing data for analysis
|
Check data instrument for accuracy & completeness of info (missing, doubled up, unclear)
Label each variable on instrument (name assigned to each variable for ease of identification Yes=1, No=2) Assign Variable Labels to computer locations (entered # into comp) Develop codebook and control file (list of the variable labels) Enter data using double verification or other quality control procedures Clean Raw Data Files develop summative scores (ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Double verification
|
entering hte same set of data 2 times and a program checks if there are discrepancies
(ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Wild & out-of-range codes
|
errors in entering data---entries don't reflect scores assigned to variables
ex. 1=yes, 2=no, a 7 was entered (ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Codebook
|
data definition record---a hard or electronic copy of variable labels and range or values they represent
(ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Raw Data file
|
the set of #'s in file entered from questionnaire
(ppt 18-20) |
|
|
How do you clean raw data files?
|
investigator checks inputted data set to ensure all data is accurately transcribed from data collection instrument to computer
(ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Developing summative scores (when preparing data for analysis)
|
reducing vast quantity of info to general categories, summated scores, or single numerical indicators
(ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Measurement process will determine...
|
type of data you obtain (nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio)
type of analysis you can perform (ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Data set will be primarilly _____ or ____ based
|
Data set will be primarilly NARRATIVES or TEXT based.
Nonverbals, set of words derived from interview, stories etc. (ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Transcription
|
typed narrative derived from an audiotape or videotape of an interview with an individual or group
(first step in analysis & interpretation of narrative) (ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Memoing
|
summarizing as researcher proceeds, a way of coding segments of narrative, indicates personal notations
(ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Audit Trail
|
key point of inquiry, can be reviewed to determine credibility.
(ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Statistics
|
numbers derived from mathematical procedures as part of analytical process
(ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Data
|
information obtained to answer research questions, represented by numbers in statistical analysis
(ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Three categories of statistical analysis
|
1 descriptive stats
2. inferential stats 3 associational stats (ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Descriptive Statistics
|
various characteristics of data under study
(ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Data reduction
|
reduce large sets of observations into more compact and interpretable forms
(ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Types of descriptive statistics (three)
|
Frequency distributions
Measures of central tendency Measures of variability (ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Frequency Distribution
|
Type of Descriptive Stats
summarizes occurrences of events under study Relative frequencies, normal distribuation, skewed distribution |
|
|
Relative Frequencies
|
Type of Descriptive Stats--frequency stat
frequencies converted into % based on total # of observations (ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Normal distribution
|
type of descriptive stat--frequency dist
Data grp themselves around a midpoint in a normal curve (ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Skewed Dist
|
type of descriptive stat--frequency dist
not all data follow a normal curve (ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Measures of central tendency
|
type of descriptive stat
numerical info on most representative scores in group---- mean, median, mode (ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Mean
|
Measure of Central Tendency
ave score of data All scores (ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Median
|
Measure of Central Tendency
point in distribution in the very middle (ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Mode
|
Measure of Central Tendency
value occurs most frequently in a data set (ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Measures of variability
|
Variability: Spread of data, allows evalulations of homogeneity or heterogeneity
(ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Variability
|
(dispersion) Spread of data, allows evalulations of homogeneity or heterogeneity
Range, interquartile range, sum of squares, variance, standard deviation, (ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Range
|
measure of variabilty
difference between highest and lowest score (ppt 18-20) |
|
|
interquartile range
|
range of middle 50% of subjects scores (majority response)
(ppt 18-20) |
|
|
What is the interquartile range of...
1, 5, 7, 17 |
2
(ppt 18-20) |
|
|
What is the mode of
1, 5, 6, 7, 9 |
5.6
(ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Sum of Squares
|
measure of variability--descriptive
Interpreting variability---square difference b/w each score and mean. The larger the #, larger the variance (ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Variance
|
measures of variability--descriptive
average deviation of scores around mean, reflects the mean or average of the sum or squares. Larger the variance, larger the spread of scores. (ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Standard Deviation
|
ave. deviation of scores from the mean
(ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Bivariate Descriptive Statistics
|
Correlational analysis---examines extent to which 2 variables are related to ecah other across a group of subjects
(ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Positive correlation
|
values will change in the same direction
(ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Negative Correlation
|
variable is related in an opposing direction, (ex. As education increases, poverty decreases)
(ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Contingency tables
|
Bivariated Descriptive Stats
Cross Tabulation-- between two variables, attributes of one variable are related to attributes of another (TABLE) (ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Level of significance
|
bivariate descriptive statistics
Statement of expected accuracy--probability of how bad the results are If statistical test result is higher than level of significance results are statistically significant (Ex... confidence 0.05 chosen means reults will be caused by chance 5/100 times, 95% sure) (ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Inferential (Level 2, drawing inferences)
|
allows researcher to test hypotheses about a population using data obtained from probability & nonprobability samples)
(ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Steps in inferential statistics
|
1 State hypothesis
2 select a significance levle 3 compute a calculated value 4 obtain a critical value 5. reject or fail to reject the null hypothesis (ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Statistical inference
|
Inferential
process of generalizing from sample to larger population (ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Confidence interval
|
Inferential
range of values observed in sample & we expect to find a value that accurately reflects population (ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Confidence level
|
degree of certainty confidence interval is correct
(ppt 18-20) |
|
|
A hypothesis in inferential statistical analysis is typically
a. regular hypothesis b. null hypothesis Why? |
b. null hypothesis because it's impossible to prove something, only disprove it.
(ppt 18-20) |
|
|
What is a P value?
|
% that the researchers think that changes seen were due to chance
(ppt 18-20) |
|
|
How does one select significance level in inferential statistical analysis?
|
It is based on sample size, level of measurement, and conventional norms in literature.
|
|
|
One-tailed test of significance
|
Extreme values occur on a single tail of the curve, used with directional hypothesis, easier to obtain statistical significance
(ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Two-tailed test of significance
|
assumes extreme score can occur in either tail of normal curve, used w/ nondirectional hypothesis
(ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Type I error (or Alpha Error) in inferential significance
|
reject null hypothesis when it is actually true. Making a claim (or conclusion) that there is a difference when there isn't.
(ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Type II error in inferential significance
|
failing to reject null hypothesis when they SHOULD (so they accept a null hypothesis when they should reject it)
Claiming an intervention didn't do anything when it really did (ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Computing a calculated value in inferential statistics
|
Must choose and calculate statistical test from 2 classifications of inferential statistics (parametric or non- procedures)
(ppt 18-20) |
|
|
How are parametric and nonparametric procedures similar?
|
Both are a part of computing calculated value in inferential statistics...
Test hypothesis Involve Level of Significance Require calculated value Compare calculated value against critical value conclude w/decisions about hypothesis (ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Parametric statistics
|
Math formulas test hypothesis
Based on: Sample are normally distributed, homogeneity of variance b/w groups, data are generated from measures are interval level Are the most robust of inferential statistics--most likely detect significant effect, increase power and decrease type II errors Use with interval ratio variables (ppt 18-20) |
|
|
What three assumptions are parametric statistics based on?
|
Samples come from populations that are normally distributed, homogeneity of variance b/w groups, data that are generated from measures are interval level
(ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Two common parametric statistic tests
|
T-test--looks at whether means of 2 groups are different
One way analysis of variance (ANOVA) f-test serves same purpose as the t-test, can be used w/2 or more groups. (ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Nonparametric statisticts
|
Formulas used in these instances:
Normality of variance in pop is not assumed homogeneity not assumed data are ordinal or nominal small sample sizes (ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Most common nonparametric statistical test
|
Chi-square & Mann-Whitney U
(ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Choosing a statistical test depends on ...
|
Research Q
Variables Level of Measurement Relationship b/w variables # of grps compared Underlying assumptions about distribution from sample pop Sample Size (ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Obtaining a critical value in Inferential statistical analysis
|
tells researcher what # must be derived from stat test to have significant findings
(ppt 18-20) |
|
|
Reject or fail to reject null hypothesis in inferential statistical analysis
|
If critical value is larger than calculated statistic, researcher accepts null hypothesis
If calculated value is larger than critical value, researcher rejects null hypothesis (ppt 18-20) |
|
|
FLASHCARDS END ON SLIDE
|
SLIDE 38...continue there
|
