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178 Cards in this Set
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- Back
Inter-American Cooperation: The Western Hemisphere
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-The U.S. has the good neighbor policy with Latin America (made by FDR).
-Latin America doubted this, but the U.S. proved they were good neighbors during the 1920's. => Creates Hemispheric Solidarity |
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Inter-American Cooperation: Panama Conference
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1939 - Hemispherical Neutrality, only allowed merchant ships in the western hemisphere
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Inter-American Cooperation: Havana Conference
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1940 - No-transfer Resolution (After fall of france)
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Inter-American Cooperation: Lend-Lease Aid
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-1941: Lease aid for Latin American states, USSR, GB and France.
-President can deem where to lend aid to -gives money to L.A. because they're republics. => By 1945 the U.S. has indicated interest in being a good neighbor. |
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1945: Act of Chapultepec
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in Mexico
-L.A. and the US argue that a common diplomacy/interest/economy has emerged -> Tries to create something like the League of nations. |
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WWII brings 2 things to the Western Hemisphere:
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1) Greater Equality
2) W. Hemisphere is not damaged. |
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European Division: German dominance
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-Europe before Operation Barbarossa (June 1941) was controlled mainly by Germany.
-Europe was @ the height of German control (even industrial area in USSR). |
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European Divisoin: Liberation
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By May 1945 Europe is leberated but much of the land is destroyed.
-Europe demands reparations for destruction. |
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Central Powers occupied
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The Central powers come under occupation of allied powers (G.B., France, USSR, and US).
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A New Order In Asia: Japanese Expansion
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-height of japanese expansion (they're all along the coast of asia)
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USSR and Japan: non-aggression pact
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sign a pact in 1941
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End of WWII for Japan
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by the end of WWI Japan loses most asian territories
-all countries had declared war on Japan. -Demonstration: All asian countries had representatives @ peace treaty signing. |
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3 Areas of Occupation:
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1) Korea (S - USSR, N-US)
2) Japan 3) China (problem because China is not united - Nationalists/Shek and Communists/Mao) => It is not clear how long these areas will be occupied |
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4 Policemen of the World:
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1) W.Europe = GB
2) W. Hemisphere = US 3) C. Europe/S.E. Europe = USSR 4) Far East = China |
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End to Imperialism in Asia
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Atlantic Charter = end to imperialism
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The Middle East Evolves
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-issues of imperialism - colonies that helped GB during the war were promised different things
-GB needs the Middle East for oil and have their hands on it. |
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Iran
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North = USSR
South= GB => strategic value in supplying oil and aid |
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4 issues effecting development in the Middle East: 1) Imperialism
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Pre-WWII they were all colonies
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4 issues effecting development in the Middle East: 2) Nationalism
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Arab nationalism = they see GB and French as becoming weaker - cant control them as much (see this in Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria = overthrow direct/indirect imperialism)
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4 issues effecting development in the Middle East: 3) Security
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The Issue of security = oil flow wont be secured.
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4 issues effecting development in the Middle East: 4) Spheres of Influence
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Not a colony but heavily influenced by a superpower (e.g. Iraq)
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Stalin's Dilemma
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=End of WWII ther are countries who declared war on the USSR and countries who adopted pro-german ways
-he wants to make sure this doesnt happen again -he wants reparations for destruction in USSR |
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Churchill's Dilemma
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-he wants to recreate "balance of power" between France, Italy, GB, Germany
-parliament wants to know what will happen post WWII (they want to revive GB economy/give soldiers jobs) - want to assure British security |
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Yalta Conference, February 1945
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-The Big 3 fissures @ the end.
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Yalta Conference, February 1945: Stalin
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-Wants reparations and to secure the eastern front
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Yalta Conference, February 1945: Churchill
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balance of power, secure GB
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Yalta Conference, February 1945: FDR
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Democracy in asix, restore self-determination, economic propserity for US (wartime to peacetime), and create the 4 policemen of the world.
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The "Percentage Agreement"
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-Stalin and Churchill compromise
- the 2 countries appoint % of an intern government -GB/USSR Hungary and Yugo 50/50 Greeece 90/10 Romania 10/90 Bulgaria 20/80 |
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The Issue of Poland
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-Katyn Forest Massacre - Polish officers found dead in Poland, killed by USSR in 1943.
-> Polish government in exile wants to investigate, Stalin is pissed and installs a pro-USSR government in Poland. -Breaks alliance w/ London Poles |
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The Shift in Borders
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Tehran and Yalta = border issues discussed and refined.
-Soviet need shorter frontier -Anglo-American commitment to liberate Poland/Czech -> USSR wants this territory, and GB/US dont want this. -> USSR shifts Polands borders into Germany. |
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Dilemma with border shift
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Dilemma of ethnic germany = dont want to create issues
-germans pushed out and into Germany and Poles and Czechs move in. -Greco-Turkish war precedent |
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New Leaders, Changed Terms:
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-FDR dies April 12, 1945, Truman takes over
-Churchill is replaced by Atlee. |
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German Territory divided
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-Germany and austria under military occupation
-Vienna and Berlin Divided -divided by 4 powers = US/USSR/GB/France -eventual political and economic reunification -political, diplomatic and economic alignment uncertain. |
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Yalta Conference (Feb, 1945)
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-pooled reparations from germany
-putative treatment -freedom promised for E. Europe |
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Postdam Conference (August 1945): Changes
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-zonal reparations from Germany (USSR zone pays USSR)
-rehabilitation of germany -coalition government for Poland (Stalin promises elections and Truman demands immediate election) |
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Atomic Diplomacy
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-Truman: US is willing eventually to share knowledge on peaceful uses.
-US would not divulge info in short-term -fear of destructive consequences if divulge information -> directed at USSR and GB but more USSR |
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Declaration of War: Stalin
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-Stalin election speech - February 1946
-Foreign policy statement -Communists vs. Capitalists war is inevitable -enemy name not mentioned |
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Declarations of War: Churchill
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-Iron Curtain Speech, March 6, 1946
-no longer PM -Stettin to trieste -enemy named: SU -Hints at soviet goal = fruits of war -sought understanding w/ USSR, supported by all of the english speaking world. N |
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Nuclear Disarmament: Baruch Plan
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June 14, 1946
-US to UN -International control of nuclaer weaponry and nuclear research -inspection -peaceful uses of nuclear technology -eventual disarmament |
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Nuclear Disarmament: Gromyko Plan
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June 19, 1946
-ban use -ban production -destruction of all existing weaponry -> immediate effect on US to weaken US position to USSR advantage. |
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The Iron Curtain Descends, 1946: Yugoslavia and Bulgaria
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-Oct. 27, 1946 Communist party "wins election" in Bulgaria (not a free election)
-Communist government establishes control over Yugolsavia (led by Tito) => looks as if Churchill was right, USSR out of control. |
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The Balkan Peninsula, 1947
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-USSR goes beyond sphere of infeluence
-Stalin sends a message to Turkish government -> wants lost territory back, wants to get half the Turkish straits to prevent them from allowing german use of the straits and in Greece there is a communist party trying to overthrow the monarch. |
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The Balkan Peninsula, 1947: Aid
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1945-1946: Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, and Albania send aid to communist party in greece -> all under USSR percentage agreement.
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The Balkan Peninsula, 1947: GB aid
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GB tries to give aid to monarchy but GB is in bad shape because of WWII.
-Feb 1947 - if GB govt continues to support Greeks it will go bankrupt -> persuades the US to come in and help. |
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Truman's Dilemma
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-British bankrupcy?
-Churchill's predictions are coming true -Stalin's statements - inevitable war -soviet military strength = GB, US demobilized, USSR have 6x that of collective allies. -elections in e. Europe -communist insurgency in Greence -atomic standoff => Feb, 1947 - Truman realizes that the US must get involved to protect the world froM USSR expansion (it costs a lot tho/problem) -> has to scare people into shifting gears. |
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The Truman Doctrine
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-March 12, 1947
-2 camps against each other: Free people(Greeks/Turks/etc)VS. totalitarianism/armed minorities/outside pressures -no names used |
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The Truman Doctrine: The SOLUTION
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solution = massive economic aid to advance self-determination - $400 million requested.
-Greece/Turkey in danger the middle east -reminds people of teh Lend-Lease act - no difference (its in US interest/common threat) |
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The Truman Doctrine: the Domino theory
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-if country a is in danger and falls, country b bordering them falls too.
-> Greece falls, Turkey is faced with Totalitarianism, govt on 3 borders, turkey falls, Middle east is in danger (USSR gets oil) => gives USSR an advantage in future conflict. |
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The Marshall Plan, June 1947
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delivered @ Harvard Commencement
-US must help return of world to normal economic health -enemy: hunger, poverty, desperation and chaos and its champions -call for European coordination in economic recovery -the other half of the Truman Doctrine -Delivered by Secretary of State George C. Marshall =>U.S. aid and European cooperation. |
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Europe's Response: June
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June 26, 1947: European Foreign And Finance Ministers meet to discuss U.S. offer
-USSR/Poles/Czechs present- want aid -> Conditions: recepients must offer budget data and offer US advisors input on budget and open economy to free trade and foreign investment (threat to USSR, so they leave) |
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Europe's Response: September
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-W. European nations produce a 4 year plan for economic plan
-free trade -investment across borders -US aids -> Beginning of European Union and Economic Recovery |
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The Iron Curtain Descends, 1947: Poland, Hungary, Romania
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-January 19, 1947: Polish elections create communist government
-May 1947: Communists Seize power in Hungary (it was split 50/50 in % agreement) -Dec 30, 1947: Romania People's Republic declared (communist) => almost all predicted countries have fallen |
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Policy of Containment
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-ambassador to USSR - George F. Kennedy - publishes "the sources of USSR govt" published by Mr. X
=Describes USSR expansion in historical context - Tsars wanted the same things, they have their own world-wide agenda. |
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Policy of Containment: Solution
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SOLUTION = USSR pressure can be contained via counterforce/contain agression.
-US can force moderation on Kremlin (USSR White house) via containment and counter-froce. -long term struggle -US can win by letting USSR fall on own weaknesses -not a quick struggle: Cold War. |
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The COMINFORM created, Oct. 5, 1947
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-effort to solidify communist efforts
-1942: Comintern dissolved -1947: COMINFORM created (Communist Information Bureau). -coordinate actions of communists parties in the world (Effectively in Europe) -collaboration w/ non-communist parties forbidden. |
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The Western Response to Communist gains:
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-French elections: Oct 1947, communists might win election so the US govt provides financial aid to these parties (centrist parties).
-> coordinate with the US and GB against USSR |
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Czechoslavakia: An Anomaly
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-pre-WWII sympathetic to USSR
-1946: Free elections, communist party wins. -capitalism brought the destruction -still friendly with the west |
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Czechoslavakia: 1948 new elections
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-new elections and communists expected to lose because US would supply aid and USSR didnt help recovery.
-1948 there is a coup led by the communists and they take over and work with USSR |
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The Brussels Pact, March 17, 1948
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-defense pact
-direct response to Czech coup -involves GB, France, Luxembourge, Belgium and Netherlands -article 51 of the UN = Charter sited = regional countries handle regional issues -economic recovery -enemies: germany (named) and USSR (unnamed) -coincides with revival of conscription in the US (if war breaks out in europe the US will step in to help.) |
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Elections in Italy, 1948
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-large and powerful communist party
-appears likely to win -US response: fund campaign of Italian Christian Democrats -Christian democrats win election |
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The Problem of Yugoslavia
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-Josef Broz (Tito) = communist in control
-dynamic leader, fought in war, doesnt use USSR help -independent and is able to liberate Yugoslavia without USSR aid. -commonly criticizes Stalin -cominform is created and Tita and Yugoslavian delegates are expelled in 1948. => hope to get Tito to work w/ him - doesnt, Tito sends diplomatic envoys to Italy, France and US to get Western economic aid. = constant irritant to Stalin -if Tito strives other places will break away from USSR too |
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Germany: The Original Plan
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-Four occupied secotrs, eventual reunification
-demilitarization, denazification, and deindustrialization. -> Germany hasnt been realigned because of the original plan for it -when germany was deemed safe they will pull out. -US/GB/France realize Germany needs a role in recovery - back away from deindustrialization idea. |
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The Plan Changes: Germany
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-economic recovery of Germany central to european recovery with the Marshall plan
-creation of "BIZONIA" Jan, 1947 -Bizonia currency = deutschemark, recovery in US and GB sphere. -> approach France to join in (against communism), they do -Trizonia is created June 1948 -> USSR concerns - this is another state so they cut off access to Berlin |
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The Berlin Blockade, June 1948-May 1949
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-raods are closed by USSR
-violation of Potsdam Accords - access to roads in Berlin -goal: remove Western presence in USSR sphere (embarassment) -Capitalist way of life is returning propserty to W. Berlin -if access is cut off then W. Berlin cant get goods |
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The Berlin Blockade: Response
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-Solution #1: Blitzkreig
-general Lucius Clay: military commander of US, sends tanks, dont need roads |
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The Berlin Airlift
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June 24, 1948 - May 12, 1949
-airlift goods to W. Berlin -French, GB and US send goods -lane lands every 30 minutes with goods =succeeds (no radar) -by may 12, roads are fixed. |
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The Berlin Airlift: Nuclear Diplomacy
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-US sent 60 B-29 Bombers to Britain by the end of 1948
-could deliver a-bomb to Soviet targets if airlift is messed with -1st use of nuclear diplomacy |
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Germany Divided, 1949-1990
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-Creation of West and East Germany
-according to Potsdam the Order-Neisse Line is created. -West Germans dont recognize this =they want the land lost to Poland. |
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Who leads the Germans?
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-Konrad Adenauer (W. Germany): commited anti-nazi and Christian democrat (GB adn France dont believe this)
-E. Germany: Walter Ulbricht: committed anti-nazi and communist -both claim to be teh german voice and wont recognize each other. |
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the birth of NATO
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-April 4, 1949 = Treaty of Washington
-article 51 cited =creates NATO -geographic extension (N. America, W. Germany, French Algeria, etc) = doesnt support imperialism -political and economic cooperation -collective security -containment |
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USSR A-bomb
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August 1949: USSR creates a successful A-bomb
-USSR now has a bomb to use against NATO members |
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the postwar world
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big amount of world participation in WWII
-even if not in war, countries are heavily invested and involved in winning war -1929 - great depression, ends when WWII beings -meetings in the U.S. to discuss (allies) keeping world out of depression, @ Bretton Woods |
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The Bretton Woods Conference, July 1944
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-resore international credit
-restore international trade -prevent postwar depression -integrate allied economies -no trade barriers/loan barriers -many delegates at conference |
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Bretton Woods and IGO's
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-inter-governmental organization = broad organization that coordinates government
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IGO's: IMF
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-international monetary fund (IMF) = short term bank, loans, credit checks
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IGO's: World Bank
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International Bank for Reconstruction and Develpment (World Bank) = designed to give long-term, low-interest loans to help reconstruct industry and helps worldwide
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IGO's: International Labor Organization
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Makes sure workers arent shafted
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IGO's: ITO
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International Trade Organization = dedicated to ensuring world trade (no barriers, etc)
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Gold standard
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return to the gold standard, used to figure out transactions
-dollar as world's reserve currency = stable, as good as gold, US economy is good. |
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Notable Absences @ Bretton Woods
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2 major industrial powers missing: Germany and Japan
=> War is still going on during 1944. -allies must decide what to do w/ their economies/how to integrate them into the world economy. |
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What to do w/ Axis Powers: Morgenthau Plan
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-Morgenthau Plan = make sure they dont have industry (made by US treasurer)
-no factories/no mining (iron and coal - tanks/weaponry) -discussed at Yalta, Stalin likes. |
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Morgenthau Plan: Potsdam
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US/GB seek to rehabilitate Germany (plan is rejected)
-> Europe needs German Industry, in order for economic recovery germany needs to be integrated/rehabilitated. -world threat needs to be reduced so troops can go home -Stalin = dont rehabilitate an aggressor, the USSR should be the 1st focus of recovery efforts |
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Cold War Economics, 1945-1946: Soviet response
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-Because allies violate Yalta/Potsdam, the Soviet bloc refuses to participate in the ITO..
-Soviet bloc refuses to use dollar as world currency or adopt the gold standard because it would undermine his total control/needs to use own currency. -USSR demand common economic policy toward germany (guaranteed under yalta and potsdam) -demand reparations (get them from their own zone) -ITO ceases to exist because USSR refuse participation |
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The Marshall Plan, June 1947
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-offered credit for european purchases of US goods
-called for european eocnomic cooperation, opening of budge books for American inspection -tacit promise: communism thrives on poverty and devastation -the other half of the walnut (Truman doctrine) -stalin doesnt want to integrate because its not total control -Walnut: ideological argument, eliminate communist threat by reviving their economies -aid to GB, Netherlands, Denmark, Yugoslavia, etc = resusitate principle power houses/military allies = GB, France, Italy, Germany -1948 - 1952 = 4 year program that US gives $12.97 billion. |
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The Birth of GATT
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general agreement on trade and tariffs
-signed in 1947, enacted Jan. 1, 1948 -ensure trade barriers dont go up -encourage all countries to give "most-favored nation" status/principle to all. |
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GATT works by:
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encouraging lowering trade barriers between all gatt members
- about 48 members -designed to be short-term/temp -revives and complicates trade |
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The Soviet Response: COMECON, Jan 1949
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-council for mutual economic assistance (COMECON)
-founded in Moscow -established Soviet counterpart to Western European integration -no economic aid/laons -1950: E. Germany joins => re-emphasizes cold war bloc |
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Jean Monnet and the Eureopean Union
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-orchestrated interallied purchases during WWII
-favored collective economies -advocated european political and econoimc integration as stipulated under the marshall plan -GB and US deny this -A "United States of Europe" -Monnet wants this to happen in 48 |
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Monnet's Dilemma: The German Vampire
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-Konrad Adenaur (E.Germany), the threat never dies
-France fears Germany-they dont want another invasion. -all of europe feels the same -the need to remove the german threat -1925 the need to integrate W. Germany's economy into W. Europe: resurrecting the dream of Arstide Briand pact (integrate countries so was is impossible). |
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Economic Integration: Phase 1/Schuman Plan
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-the Schuman Plan, May 9, 1950
-integrate Western European coal and steel production -response to COMECON -international corporate trust -reduces chance of unilateral rearmament =countries dont control all of their steel production |
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The European Coal and Steel Community, April 18, 1951
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ECSC
-France, W. Germany, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourge -G.B doesnt join |
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GB doesnt join ECSC b/c
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1) GB gets coal from US -regulate that
2) get coal from colonies |
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European Economic Integration: Phase 2 EEC
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=European Economic Community (EEC)
-common market = extend to every fascet -free trade and movement of capital and labor -common tariff, agricultural, transportation and commercial policies -coordination on economic labor and investment policies -improve standard of living and collective GDP -hints at a greater european union =political, economic union -belief that they will experience more prosperity |
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The Treaty of Rome, March 25, 1957
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France, W. Germany, Italy, Belgium, Luxembourg and Netherlands
-create EURATOM (European Atomic Energy Community) = organization to research atomic weaponry and to promote peacful use of a-energy. -Britain declines membership again |
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Response to EEC: Britain
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-Britain: creates teh European Free Trade Association on May 1950
-Britain, Norway, Sweden, Austria, Portugal, Switzerland and Denmark = free trade zone -no common production, labor or investment policies = problem = competition between member industries |
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The EEC expands
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-1970s expansion
-Jan 1973: UK, Denmark and Ireland join -GB tries to get in EEC = rejected -Jan 1981 = greece joins -jan 1986 = spain and portugal join |
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COMECON expands
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-1968 = Mongolia joins
-1972 = Cuba -1978 = Vietnam |
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A United States of Europe
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-economic integration
-german reunification (oct 1990) -end of cold war, COMECON 1991 -EEC composed of liberal, republican government = established conditions to be admitted to EEC -EEC is talking about abolishing currency and making the EURO -next: political integration |
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Treaty of Maastricht
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Feb 7, 1992 = agrees to continue economic cooperation and begin political cooperations = European Union
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The Division of Europe: NATO vs. the USSR
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NATO alliance: common/capitalist economy, if ones attacked others will help, democratic elections
USSR: Russia and E. Europe, COMECON, if ones attacked others will help, common ideology = communism/totalitarianism -W. Germany = exception in 1949 |
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The "Gilded Alliance": Weaknesses in NATO
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-covered with a thin layer of gold = not as valuable as treaty appears to be.
-mutual assistance not reflexive -military disparity (175 USSR vs. 14 NATO) -no common cohesive militiary alliance -the American "nuclear umbrella" = shields NATO/W. Germany from 175 USSR divisions. |
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The Birth of MAD
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-USSR successful atomic test July 14, 1949
-US learnes this August -reduces moral power of American nuclear weaponry -threat to W. Europe *principle of mutually assured destruction = no one will use an a-bomb (MAD) -comprimises US nuclear deterence -USSR becomes a superpower too |
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The "loss" of China, Oct, 1949
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-from 1946 to 1949 Civil War
-Shek/nationalist vs. Mao Zedong/Communist -US cuts off aid to Shek because Mao is clearly winning -Oct 1949, Mao wins -Mongolia is forced to become communist (used to be pro-US) -china going communist is huge (large # of people) |
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Truman's Dilemma Pt.1: Greece
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Civil War in Greece
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Truman's Dilemma Pt. 2: Communist bloc
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Communist bloc is on the rise
-nuclear parity? USSR might achieve what the US achieved -dont know USSR intentions -time for a new foreign policy? |
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Paul Nitze and his NSC-68
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Nitze = Director of Policy Planning for US State Dept..
-member of the National Security Counciol (NSC) -chief architect of NSC memorandum #68, April 1950 |
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NSC-68s worldview
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-USSR aggressively expansionist
-containment failed (a-bomb, loss of china) -need an aggressive response, not piecemeal measures -restore W. Europe and Japan (new ally in Asia) to econoimc prominence -rearm W. Europe = need military parity/superiority -increase US atomic and conventional forces *GOAL = rollback of communisms = territories that communism has taken need to be liberated. |
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NSC-68 Goals in Europe
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-increase American conventional presence
-strategic air command (SAC) increased = bombing countries (deterence) -fully integrated NATO (weapons, command structure) = not just a treaty, need the same guns |
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The Dilemma of NSC-68
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-Expensive program. (12 bil to 48 bil to 60 bil in 2 years)
-Need congressional (Republican) approval (need approval from opp party) -Economic recession = need people to spend more -How justify increase (dilemma of Truman Doctrine)? |
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The Communists: "Peace Offensive"
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-Feb. 1950: “offensive” launched by W. European parties.
-U.S. the aggressor. -French, W. German, and Italian socialists favor a neutral Europe. -Avoid destruction. -Give Europe its independence. |
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Korea: the Cold War turns "hot"
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-Parallels to Germany:
Divided peninsula. Separate governments. -Korean War: 2 Zones, N.Korea = USSR/Sung, S.Korea/US and Sing Mon Rhee -both leaders think they're the leader of all of Korea -Recent border clashes. -June 1950: North Korea invades South Korea. -progresses quickly and force US to partake so it doesnt fall to communism. |
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Korea: Implications for Europe
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-Concerns over Soviet strike in Europe (W. Europe troops are helping the US in Korea)
-Impetus to improve NATO, unite armed forces (is this apart of the USSR scheme to dominate the world?) -Dec. 19, 1950: NATO creates integrated command under Eisenhower = better NATO -U.S. ground commitment now 6 divisions (Now 175: 18), improved from 4 to 6 |
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The Lisbon Conference, Feb 1952
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-need a serious deterent
-Lisbon, Portugal -Increase NATO divisions to 50. -NATO refines command structure at all levels. -Political coordination. -NATO now largely functional. -“Containment” replaced with U.S.-led alliance (Nitzes vision came true) |
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NATO expansion: the dilemma
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-Western European allies’ economies strained.
Economic recovery. Imperial conflicts. -1948-1955: U.S. troops defended West German territory. -Sept. 1950: U.S. argues West Germany should contribute to its defense. -needs an army to defend europe from communist threat |
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France: NO!
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-A future German threat?
Echoes of Hitler. -France’s Public Enemy #1: West Germany or the Soviet Union? ->The need to remove the German threat, and fully integrate Germany’s armed forces into Europe (a la the ECSC) -French Foreign minister Robert Schuman |
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The Pleven Plan, 1950
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-French Prime Minister Rene Pleven
-Sept. 12: U.S. proposed West German admission into NATO. -Oct. 24: René Pleven proposed an integrated, “European” army. -The “other half” (military) of the Schuman Plan (economic) |
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The genius of the Pleven Plan
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-German troops without a German Army.
-German troops dispersed throughout Europe. -at the battalion level. -No German strategic forces or nuclear forces. -European commander chosen by a European parliament |
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The European Defense Community (EDC)
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-Signed May 27, 1952.
-Obtains U.S. approval. -EDC under NATO. -EDC efforts at unification. Common uniform Common leaders Common political and judicial system. Common budget. -Difference: German troops organized at divisional, not battalion level. -Greece and Turkey join NATO feb 1952 = can contribute troops |
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W. Germany's decision: to sign or not to sign?
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-Not full military sovereignty.
-Would receive full political, economic sovereignty, if signed EDC. -Would lessen concerns of a future German threat. -Would end American, British, and French occupation of West Germany. |
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Regime Change: the U.S.
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-January 20, 1953: Dwight D. Eisenhower replaces Harry S. Truman as U.S. President.
-Eisenhower advocates a “New Look” toward American foreign policy. |
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Eisenhowers Objectives
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-Reduced spending.
-Balanced budget. -Reduced conventional forces. -Increased nuclear arsenal. -“Massive retaliation”. |
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Dulles: Eisenhower's Enforcer
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-Secretary of State John Foster Dulles
-Manichean outlook (black vs. white)/(god vs. devil/US vs Soviet -Aggressively combat communism. -“Rollback” communism. -Seek victory for the “free world”. -Kept in check by Eisenhower -> wants reduced tension in the world |
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The Lynchpin of "massive retalliation" (Hbomb/Second Shift/Massive retal)
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-need American nuclear superiority
-US has Hbomb December 1942, 100-1000x as powerful -US has air force bases in europe -Soviets get Hbomb Aug 1953 -US bombers a second shift option: conventional deterence - USSR invades W. Europe, US planes can go to USSR and drop bombs = Massive retaliation -> this threat is so bad that Soviets will never cross the line. |
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A Setback for the EDC
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August 30, 1954 = French assembly failed to radify the EDC
-edc appears on the brink of dissolution -french see "thaw" in cold war = relations are improving -Dulles: US will re-evaluate commitment to Europe |
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A Compromise Reached (WEU)
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-Anthody Eden (UK foreign Secretary) proposed admitting W. Germany into the Brussels Pact
-Oct. 1954- Brussels pac tbecomes W. European Union (WEU) w/ admission of W. Germany and Italy -U.S. and UK and France occupation of W. Germany ends |
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Regime Change: USSR
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-March 5, 1953: Stalin
dies. -No clear successor. -Uncertain implications for Soviet foreign policy. -What happens now? |
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Who suceeds Stalin?
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-March 1953: world watches Stalin’s funeral.
-Ceremony might indicate who heads Soviet bloc. -Safe money on Beria. -Second bet: PM Bulganin. -No one suspects Khrushchev. |
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Dulles: Eisenhower's enforcer
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-Manichean outlook (black vs. white).
-“Rollback” communism. -Seek victory for the “free world”. |
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The Lynchpin of "massive retaliation"
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-American nuclear superiority.
-U.S. has H-Bomb (Dec. 1952). -U.S. has air force bases in Europe. -Soviets get H-Bomb (Aug. 1953) -U.S. bombers a “second-strike” option. -detering agression |
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An American Free from Reprisal
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-from 1945 to 1955 USSR bombers can only make it to the mid-atlantic
-the US has air bases in europe |
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The Value of the EDC and a stronger NATO
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-Would allow for W. German rearmament -> fewer US troops
-Would increase NATO conventional force. -Could deter Soviet first strike, lessen need to use American deterrent. |
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After Stalin: An attempt at de-escalation: Panmunjom Armistice/Korean War
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-not sure who will take over
-July 1953 - Panmunjom Armistice = USSR puts pressure on Korea to stop fighting -Fighting in Korean war ends - no peace treaty but ends the fighting. -contrasted with USSR repression of E. Berlin Revolt (July 1953) - riots about poor conditions in E. Berlin - USSR crush them. |
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After Stalin: An attempt at de-escalation- Indochina/Geneva Conference
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1946-1954: France VS. Ho Chi Minh communist army = not going well
-July 1954: Geneva Conference = peace talks -> makes sure Indochina wont become completely communist =US, USSR, France, Indochina re-establish borders. -N. Communist -S. Anti-Communist =ends war 1946-1954 -Vietnam is temporarily partitioned -eventual elections for unified govt. |
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A Setback for the EDC
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-Aug. 30, 1954: French Assembly failed to ratify the EDC.
-EDC appears on brink of dissolution. -French see “thaw” in Cold War. -Dulles: U.S. will reevaluate commitment to Europe. |
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A Compromise Reached (Eden/WEU)
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-Anthony Eden (UK Foreign Secretary), proposes admitting W. Germany into Brussels Pact.
-Oct. 1954: Brussels Pact becomes Western European Union (WEU) with admission of W. Germany and Italy. -U.S., U.K, and French occupation of W. Germany ends. |
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Mixed Signals: the Warsaw Pact
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-May 14, 1955, form their own version of NATO
-Reaction to W. German inclusion? -Replaced “bilateral agreements”. -Collective Security/ Article 51 of the U.N. - Open to all (not really) |
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Mixed Signals: Austrian Free State Treaty
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-Vienna, Austria under Allied military occupation.
-March 15, 1955: Austrian Free State Treaty ends occupation. -Austria neutral, cannot reunite with Germany. -Austria nonaligned occupation leaves and austria can form sovereign state under 2 conditions: 1) always neutral, 2) cant reunite w/ germany |
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1955: Mixed Signals Continued: USSR trying to make peace?
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-USSR returns Porkhala naval base to Finland.
-USSR returns Port Arthur to China. -USSR restores relations with Yugoslavia. -USSR seeks relations with W. Germany. |
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The Geneva Conference, July 18-21, 1955
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-Four-power talks (US, UK, France, and USSR).
-Discuss European issues stemming from WWII. -Cordial. -Vague discussion about German reunification. |
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Open Skies and Disarmament
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-Open flights over American, Soviet territory.
-Blueprint exchanges of all bases. -Bulganin: Superpowers disarm nukes, limit conventional forces. -Eisenhower presents this to USSR (Bulganin) -> seem to agree until Kruschev disagrees -Bulganin turns it down -> Eisenhower now knows Krushchev is calling the shots on foreign affairs |
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The Consequences of Geneva
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-No concrete settlement (“open skies”, disarmament, German unification).
-Improved rhetoric, communication. -Eisenhower learns who is in charge of Soviet Union (Khrushchev) -Dulles later ruins “spirit of Geneva” (Oct. 1955 meeting). |
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the Global View: USSR global Expansion
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-June 1955: Signs accord with India for technical and economic aid.
-Nov. 1955: Khrushchev tours Southern Asia. -Lenin: Imperialism is the last stage of capitalism (1917). -Seek allies among former colonies in Asia and Africa ->help old-colonies b/c imperialism is capitalism |
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...Or a defensive response?
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-USSR argue its defensive
-Sept. 1954: SEATO created = US made to protect S. Vietnam -1955: CENTO created= defensive for Iran, Iraq, Pakistan/Middle East -Both Modeled on NATO. -Offer technological, military aid for anti-Soviet stance. -USSR thinks US is trying to surround it w/ hostile states -> not being aggressive, just responding to military alliances. |
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Krushchev and "De-stalinization"
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-20th Party Congress (Feb. 1956).
-Keynote speech: “peaceful co-existence” = return to Leninist doctrine of peacful coexistance between Communist and Capitalist world (USSR is modifying tone) -Secret speech: de-Stalinization (11 days later) = very private = denounces Stalin's reign of terror, foreign policy, efforts to topple Tito. -somebody passes him a note and he responds that he didnt do anything because he was too afraid, just as this person was too afriad to ask in person -Leaked to West ->Appeared to support “alternate paths to socialism.” -April 1956: Cominform dissolved. -given in private because all leaders in E. Europe use Stalin's methods -> wants to give them notice in advance -he's serious about ending Stalin's rule |
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The Polish Response
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-June 1956: Polish workers riot for better labor conditions in Poznan.
-Oct.: Worker riots throughout Poland. -Polish politburo supports rehabilitation of Wladyslaw Gomulka -> look at Krushchev's denunciation of Stalin. -Oct. 19: Gomulka elected First Secretary of Polish Communist Party -> he used to disagree w/ Stalin, follow his own path |
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Krushchev Intervenes
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-Oct. 20: Khrushchev flies to Warsaw, assure Gomulka ‘s loyalty.
-Soviet tanks move toward border (doesnt like being criticized) -Gomulka arms workers. -Khrushchev caves in. -Gomulka eases restrictions on civil liberties. -Soviet military presence declines. -Still member of Warsaw Pact. |
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The Hungarian Response
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-Oct.: Hungarian workers, students protest economic conditions.
-Imre Nagy made Premier. -Nagy introduces liberal reforms, non-communist members, into govt. -Oct. 30: Soviet troops leave Hungary -> same thing as Poland, as long as USSR is not threatened, procede |
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The Hungarian Empire
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-Nov 1, 1956 = Hungary will have free elctions, no more communism - Hungary will leave Warsaw Pact
-appears to be a peacful rollback - good for capitalists -nightmare for Kruschev = non-aligned Hungary is near USSR border |
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The Hungarian Empire: USSR response
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-Nov. 4: 250,000 troops, 5,000 tanks return, overthrow govt.
-Hungary calls for American aid, cites pledges of Radio Free Europe = dont do this b/c of idea of massive retaliation on europe. -World distracted with simultaneous crisis in the Suez. -Krushchev topples Hungarians |
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An Arms race beings
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-1955: Soviets develop long-range bomber that can reach US
-Aug. 26, 1957: Soviets develop ICBM - missile from USSR to US -Oct. 4, 1957: Soviets launch Sputnik. -Dec. 1957: U.S. develops ICBM. -Feb. 1958: U.S. launches Explorer. -Fall 1958: U.S., U.K., and U.S.S.R. agree to halt nuclear tests (de-escalation?). |
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Berlin and the Cold War
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-Still divided.
-“Soviet ulcer” -Showcase for W. European economic recovery. -Still under Allied occupation. -Nov. 1958: Khrushchev demanded all powers evacuate Berlin. =Goal: Weaken U.S. relations with W. Germany, NATO allies. -1959: Khrushchev forced to back down. |
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American Foreign Policy
|
Dulles dies of cancer, May 24, 1959.
An end to “rollback”? A “second thaw” in superpower relations? An end to “massive retaliation”? |
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Nuclear De-escalation
|
-U.S. is augmenting air force in europe
-July 1959: Greece, Italy, and UK accept U.S. MRBMs on their territory. -Aug. 3, 1959: Geneva Conference: U.S., USSR will exchange state visits. -Oct. 1959: Turkey accepts MRBMs. |
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Krushchev to the US
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-Sept. 16-27, 1959: Visited Washington, NYC, LA, SF, and Des Moines.
-Met with Eisenhower at Camp David. -no disneyland for krushchev |
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The U-2 plane spying crisis
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-Flights ongoing since 1956.
-Photographed Soviet bases, research facilities. -USSR knew of flights since 1956. -Flew higher than Soviet ground-to-air, fighters could reach. |
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Francis Gary Powers makes history
|
-May 5: U-2 plane goes down over USSR.
-US cover story: weather recon plane. -Think pilot committed suicide, photograph gear destroyed. -Soviets present Powers to media. -Eisenhower admits personal responsibility for flights, recalls Pearl Harbor. -Soviets demand personal apology, or will refuse to attend summit. |
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Factors in Kruschev's Policies
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-Soviet hardliners (Germany, Europe)/critics
-Sino-Soviet tensions (china wants war) -Wait out U.S. elections, then deal with new U.S. president. |
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Partition Promised: the Hussein-McMahon Correspondence, 1915-1916
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-Husseins family fights Ottoman Overlords
-Britain supports post-war creation of an arabic state: vague on boundaries, status of the holy land (Jerusalem and Bethleham) |
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Partition Promised #2: the Balfour Declaration
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-Nov. 2, 1917
-Britain supports a "national home" for Jewish people in Palestine -consideration must be given for indigenous arab populations -> conflict b/c arabs are promised the same region. |
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A Failure to Reconcile Promises
|
-Prince Faisal goes to PP assisted by T.E. Lawrence
-Weizman does too -Faisal and Weizmann attempt to reach compromise on future Palestinean state, but fail. |
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mandates
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-preparation for self-government as mandates of teh League of Nations
-borders drawn @ Cairo Conference (1921) -Britain receives Palestine |
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the Creation of Palestine: preparation for independence/clashes
|
1922-1947 no effort to prepare people for independence
-1922-1947 - repeated clashes between arab and jewish populations -no effort to create a kingdom or prepare independence in Palestine - viewed as a British colony |
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Pro-British Puppet leaders
|
Prince Faisal in Iraq
Prince Abdullah in Jordan |
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B/c of Balfour
|
Zionists get a national home in Palestine - very unclear
=> lots of criticism of Britain, no one is getting what they want -arabs and jews get angrier and angrier at each other. |
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Re-thinking Palestine: Suez Canal/Solution for unrest
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-1936: War appears more likely in Europe. Britain seek to assure the "lifeline" via the Suez Canal by stabilizing Palestine.
-British govt. seeks solution taht resolves civil unrest between jews and arabs |
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The Peel Commission (1936)
|
-headed by Lord Robert Peel
-interviews Leaders in Jewish and Arab communities -Proposes partition of Palestine: Arabs get 2/3, Jews get 1/3, British control holy cities, calls for orderly transfer of arabs and jews to respective lands = Arabs reject it, Jewish settlers are split. =betrayal --> Never happens and GB forgets about it b/c of WWII |
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WWII and Palestine
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1939: British need to secure the Middle East (for oil and lifeline)
-Germany is going to invade Poland -Need to resolve issue of Palestine avoid Arabs receiving encouragement from Hitler |
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WWII and Palestine: White Paper Policy
|
1939
-Jews and Arabs unhappy (immigration cap placed on, still a mandate) => fails because it doesnt supply immediate statehood both groups unhappy |
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The Legacy of the Holocaust
|
-end of WWII: allied (Western) public becomes aware of Holocaust
-European Jewish populations increasingly concerned for future safety -increasingly look to emigration (to US and Palestine) for safer future -Problem = quotas in both areas (both filled) |
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Independence by Guerilla Warfare: Begin Irgun and Gurion Haganah
|
-est 1931, and 1920
-wage guerilla warfare campaign against British -attack british (mandate) govt buildings, employers and troops =goal = throw in towel and hand territory to Jews -not sucessful -Irgun more militant of the 2 -obtain independent Jewish State -Britain was busy w/ the War |
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Terrorist Tactics: British Response/Terrorist Response
|
-June 1946: British crackdown, arrest several Haganah and Irgun members -> striking back
-July 22, 1946: Bombing of the King David Hotel, HQ of British police in Palestine. -Orchestrated by Irgun as retaliation for British raid. 91 dead (including 41 Arab and 17 Jewish citizens), 45 injured. => GB believes Irgun is a terrorist group - Haganah also begin to intensify efforst against GB for an independent state |
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The Saga of The Exodus
|
-July 11, 1947: Left France for Palestine, with 4,500 passengers.
-Symbolic value: Holocaust survivors, Biblical name. -British intercepted it, forced passengers to leave Exodus. -Covered by media. ->Immigration quota from 1939 White Paper still in effect (zero emigration in 1947). |
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British Bankruptcy?
|
Keynes, Bevin concerned about British finances (aid to Greece, Turkey).
-Need to reduce costs, end imperial rule. ->Solution for Palestine: hand issue over to U.N. (successor of League) |
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UN resolution 181
|
-Nov. 29, 1947.
-Established partition of Palestine into a Palestinian Arab state and an Israeli state -33 for, 13 against, 10 obstain => 13 against are all states in middle east surrounding that area. |
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The Partition of the Mandate
|
53% of the land to Israel.
47% of the land to Palestine. Jewish population in 1946: 34% Arabic population in 1946: 66% -Jewish population in the majority in planned Israeli state = arabs disagree -Jerusalem remains under UN control = keep holy cities under int. control -UK Mandate expired on May 15, 1948 = arabic and jewish state will be made on that day -> everyone expects a peaceful transfer => Surprise = both anti-communist and communist countries vote in favor of partition |
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The Soviets Vote
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-Stalin a known anti-Semite.
-USSR confronted by anti-Communist states in the Middle East = your enemy is my friend. -Haganah, Irgun were quasi-socialist. -Future client state? common enemy. -Card in future purge of Jews from USSR? |
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The American Vote
|
-Concerns about 1948 presidential election - Truman needs Jewish democratic vote.
-Guilt over U.S. handling of S.S. St. Louis (1939), Holocaust = sent a boatload of jews away. -Concern over European Jewish refugee problem if no homeland created in Palestine = in favor for split |
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Countdown to May 15
|
-Guerrilla raids launched by Jewish and Arabic paramilitary groups.
-Arabic states begin to meet, plan war upon withdrawal of British Mandate. -Israeli guerrilla groups begin to organize, plan for political future. -No equal planning among Palestinian Arabic groups = no coordination on territory. |