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113 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Language
A system of communication using sounds or symbols that enables us to express our feelings, thoughts, ideas and experiences
Language make it possible to create new and unique structures because it's structure is both:
A.) hierarchical (consists of a series of components that can be combined to form larger unit)
B.) Governed by rules (certain guidelines must be followed)
EVERY Culture has
language
Skinner's viewpoint on languagr
Language is learned through reinforcement
Chromsky believed that language
was coded in our genes, and he led the development for psycholinguistics
Lexicon
All the words that a person knows
Phonemes
the shortest segment of speech that if changed, changes the meaning of the word. Bit has 3, the b, i, t sound
Morphemes
the smallest units of language that have a definable meaning or grammatical function. Truck and table have 1, whereas bedroom has 2. ed a s at the end are separate morphemes as well
Phonemic restoration effect
When participants fill in missing phonemes based on the context (coughing). This shows perception of speech is top-down
Speech segmentation
The process of perceiving individual words from the continuous flow of speech
Word frequency
The relative usage of a word in a particular language
Word frequency effect
We respond more rapidly to high-frequency words than low - shown in the lexical decision task
Context effect
The meaning of the rest of the sentence affects our ability to access words. It takes less time to read a sentence that makes more contextual sense
Lexical ambiguity
Words can often have more than one meaning, so we use the context of the sentence to decide meaning of word
Lexical priming
priming involving the name of the word. Swinney gave a sentence with a word with more than one meaning, and flashed a picture that could sway what the participant though the word would mean, despite context. we access each meaning of the word for 200 ms
Semantics
The meaning of the words
Syntax
The rules for combining words into a sentence
Parsing
the mental grouping of words of a sentence into phrases
Syntactic ambiguity
When the words of a sentence are the same, but there is more than one possible structure and more than one meaning to the sentence. The spy saw the man with the bioculars
Parser
The parser determines the meaning of the sentence, primarily by determining how words are grouped together into phrases
The syntax-first approach to parsing
focuses on how pharsing is determined by syntax - the grammatical structure. Also called garden-path model. Semantics is still used second, if needed
Late-closure
States that when a person encounters a new word, the parser assumes that this word is part of the current phrase
The interactionist Approach to parsing
Semantics can influence processing as the person reads the sentence - all information, semantics and syntax is taken into consideration. The environment also plays a role - place the apple on the towel in the box
Coherence
The representation of the text in a person's mind so that information in one part of the text is related to information in another part of the text - easier to understand
Inference
The process by which readers create information during reading that is not explicitly stated in the text
Anaphoric Inference
Inferences that connect an object or person in one sentence to an object or person in another. Using the word "she" when referring to a specific person mentioned in a prior sentence
Instrumental inference
Inferences about tools or methods. Shakespeare sat at his desk and wrote, we can infer her used a quail pen
Causal Inferences
Inferences that result in the conclusion that the events described in one clause or sentence were caused by events that occurred in a prior sentence
Situational Model
A mental representation of what a text is about - focus on people, objects, locations and events that are being described
Speech errors are more liking to create
real words mixed up than words that do not exist
Phoneme exchanges
saying fleaky squoor instead of squeaky-floor. Also consonants must replace consonants and vowels replace vowels
Word exchanged
I have to fill up my gas with cr - syntactic category rule - nouns slip with nouns, and verbs slip with verbs
Word substitutions
Her second Hungarian restaurant, instead of her first Hugarian rhapsody - both are associated with Hungry
Given-new contract
The speaker should construct sentences so they include two kinds of information: Given information and new information.. we take given information coupled with new information to form greater meaning
Syntactic priming
hearing a statement with a particular syntactic construction increases the chances the responding sentence will contain similar structure
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
the nature of a culture's language can affect the way that people think. It's easier for us to decipher between blue and green then some other cultures
Categorical perception
Occurs when stimuli that are in the same categories are more difficult to discriminate from one another than other categories
Gestalt Approach
Describes problem solving as restructuring.

1.) how people represent a problem in their mind
2.) How solving a problem involves reorganization or restructuring of this representation.. like changing how we perceive the triangle line in the circle to understand
Information-processing approach
Describes problem-solving as search
Problem
When there is an obstacle between a present state and a goal state and the answer isn't clear
Well-defined problems
have a definite answer

1+1
Ill-defined problems
What college should I go to?
Insight
A sudden realization of a problem's solution. To experiment: researchers presented people with problems and asked them how close they felt they were to solving it every 15 seconds. Insight exists, for certain types of problems people have a low level of understanding then suddenly get it
Fixation
People's tendency to focus on a specific characteristic of the problem that keeps them from arriving at a solution
Functional Fixedness
Restricting the use of an object to only it's familiar function - candle and box. When we get a hint or a different representation of the objects we may be able to solve it better...reconstruction
Situationally produced mental set
When a person encounters a situation that influences the way they approach the problem
Tower of Hanoi Problem
Stack all thee discs on another peg, but follow specific rules
Problem space
The initial state, goal state and all the possible intermediate states (each step)
Means-end analysis
Reduce the difference between the initial and goal state - this is achieved by creating subgoals - goals that create intermediate states that are closer to the goal
The acrobat problem showed...
the importance of how a problem is stated. People took longer to figure out the reserve acrobat because they can't imagine a huge acrobat on a tiny one
Analogy
The process of noticing connections between similar problems and applying the solution for one problem to other ones.
Analogy involves what steps?
1.) Noticing that there is a relationship
2.) Mapping the correspondence between the source story and the target problem
3.) Applying the mapping to generate a parallel solution
Surface features
Specific elements that make up a problem, make it harder for analogies
Structural features
the underlying principles that the problems have in common, great for analogies
Analogical encoding
Gets people to discover similar structural features...which eventually illustrates a principle
Analogical paradox
people in experiments tend to focus on surface features, while people in the real world use deeper, more structural features
In-vivo problem solving
a method in which people are observed to determine how they solve problems in real-world situations - analogies play an important role in scientific research
Difference between experts and novices?
Experts use deep structure, novices use surface features
Divergent thinking
Thinking that is open-ended and for which there are a large number of potential solutions and no correct answer
Convergent thinking
thinking that works towards fining a solution that usually has a correct answer
Design fixation
design because you're fixated on something, the cup in the engineering class
Creative cognition
a technique to train people to think creatively. Pick 3 object experiment
Mental imagery
Experiencing a sensory impression in the absence of sensory input
Visual Imagery
Seeing in the absence of visual stimulus
Imageless-thoughts debate
Thought is impossible without an image and some thinking it can
Paired-associate learning
It's easier to remember things than can be visualized, like truck and tree than things like truth and justice
Conceptual-peg hypothesis
Paivio - concrete nouns create images that other words can hang onto
mental scanning
participants create mental images and then scan them in their minds
imagery-debate
a debate about whether imagery is based on spatial or language mechanisms
Spatial Representation
A representation in which different parts of an image can be described as corresponding to specific locations in space
Epiphenomenon
pylyshyn believed that that the Spatial representation of images is something that accompanies the real mechanism but is not actually part of it
Propositional Representation
a relationship can be represented by symbols, as when the words of language represent objects and relationships between objects. Cat under the table would be UNDER (CAT, TABLE)
depictive representations
spatial relationships represented by pictures
Kosslyn's boat
supports spatial
Tacit-knowledge explanation
participants unconsciously use knowledge about the world in making their judgment, like stimulating taking a longer to go between far distances in images
Size in the visual field
We answer questions about something in our visual field more rapidly if the object fills most of the visual field
Mental-walk task
Imaged that they were walking towards the mental image of an animal with the task to estimate how far away they were from the animal when they began to experience overflow. people move closer for small animals and less close for large animals - images are spatial
Memory is best when
objects are paired together and interact, but don't have to be bizzare
Method of Loci
A method in which things to be remembered are placed at different locations in a mental image of a spatial layer. placing images in a familiar area to help remember
Pegword technique
involves imagery, but instead, you associate items with concrete words. Make a list of rhyming nouns, one-bun, two-shoe... and to remember something like going to the dentist, imagine teeth eating the bun
Phonology
The sound of a language
semantics
The meaning of the words or sounds
A.) Morphemes: The smallest meaningful unit that carries
meaning
B.) Words: meanings to the sounds; the sound is arbitrarily linked with the meaning - you learn to associate this
Syntax
Grammar - structure of the language
Pragmatics
How language is used in different situations - we adjust our speech based on the situation we are in
Productivity of language
Unique to language - there are an infinite amount of sentences that can be formed, and correct ways of saying multiple things
Arbitrariness of Units
Unique to language - there is no connection between the sound of the word the thing that it is naming
Discreteness
Unique to language - language contains discrete units, words. There can be moved around and matched
Displacement
Unique to language - we can generate language in absence of any direct stimulus
Behaviorists proposed...
language is the behavior of though - language is necessary for thought to happen. A physical phenomenon
Watson believed...
language is necessary for thought, and when we think, we are talking to ourselves - he though that if we couldn't move our vocal cords we couldn't think
Smith, Brown, Toman and goodman
Wanted to see if we need vocal cords to think, so they paralyzed smith's vocal cords - he thought and heard everything
Whorf
believed that language determines though. That the meaning of language directs the way we think. Different cultures would think differently.
Linguistic relativity
Thought that is relative to language
Rosch; colors
Found that Dani people remembered colors the same way whites did - remembered focal colors better than non-focal and agree on a prototpe
Ideographs
symbols that represent an idea but do not represent all the information in a word - like hieroglyphs
orthographies
written systems that represent the spoken language - reading
Context
is top down process, driven by cognitive expectations
Orthography
The spelling of the word, what it looks like, We use the shape of the word to get meaning - bottom-up
Phonological Cues
We use information from the sound of the word - takes longer to identify touch from couch than tribe from bribe
Classical Decision theory
Put forth by economists - people would want to be fully informed of all possible outcomes and come to rational choices and would always maximize value
Subjective Utility Theory
Some ways we make decisions are based on how we feel about something. This is subjective phenomenon. Human goals are to increase pleasure and decrease pain
Boundless reality
we face up to the actual facts
Boundless rationality
we are completely rational
Bounded rationality (Simon)
Our rationality has limits, we usually consider options one by one until we find one that suits us
Heuristic of Representativeness
People tend to judge the probability of an event by finding a ‘comparable known’ event and assuming that the probabilities will be similar.
Gambler's fallacy
Your odds are the same for every ticket you buy
Availability heuristics
we make judgments on something based on how easily we can call it to mind. Tversky and Kahnaman, do more words start with r, or have the 3rd letter as R
Illusory Correlation
The relationship of the 2 varibles
Hindsight Bias
Knew-it-all-along
Functional equivalency
It's not the exact representation, it's the function we are interested in
We tend to remember space...
based on how we move through it. If I asked you to draw a map, you would draw the roads and paths you take, not to scale, but with landmarks, my internal representation. Reflects experience
In a cognitive map we tend
to have right-angle bias - we make California more vertical than it actually is
We store mental images based
on how we understand it - bunny/duck picture