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113 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Language
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A system of communication using sounds or symbols that enables us to express our feelings, thoughts, ideas and experiences
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Language make it possible to create new and unique structures because it's structure is both:
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A.) hierarchical (consists of a series of components that can be combined to form larger unit)
B.) Governed by rules (certain guidelines must be followed) |
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EVERY Culture has
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language
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Skinner's viewpoint on languagr
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Language is learned through reinforcement
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Chromsky believed that language
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was coded in our genes, and he led the development for psycholinguistics
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Lexicon
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All the words that a person knows
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Phonemes
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the shortest segment of speech that if changed, changes the meaning of the word. Bit has 3, the b, i, t sound
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Morphemes
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the smallest units of language that have a definable meaning or grammatical function. Truck and table have 1, whereas bedroom has 2. ed a s at the end are separate morphemes as well
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Phonemic restoration effect
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When participants fill in missing phonemes based on the context (coughing). This shows perception of speech is top-down
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Speech segmentation
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The process of perceiving individual words from the continuous flow of speech
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Word frequency
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The relative usage of a word in a particular language
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Word frequency effect
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We respond more rapidly to high-frequency words than low - shown in the lexical decision task
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Context effect
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The meaning of the rest of the sentence affects our ability to access words. It takes less time to read a sentence that makes more contextual sense
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Lexical ambiguity
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Words can often have more than one meaning, so we use the context of the sentence to decide meaning of word
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Lexical priming
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priming involving the name of the word. Swinney gave a sentence with a word with more than one meaning, and flashed a picture that could sway what the participant though the word would mean, despite context. we access each meaning of the word for 200 ms
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Semantics
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The meaning of the words
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Syntax
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The rules for combining words into a sentence
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Parsing
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the mental grouping of words of a sentence into phrases
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Syntactic ambiguity
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When the words of a sentence are the same, but there is more than one possible structure and more than one meaning to the sentence. The spy saw the man with the bioculars
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Parser
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The parser determines the meaning of the sentence, primarily by determining how words are grouped together into phrases
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The syntax-first approach to parsing
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focuses on how pharsing is determined by syntax - the grammatical structure. Also called garden-path model. Semantics is still used second, if needed
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Late-closure
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States that when a person encounters a new word, the parser assumes that this word is part of the current phrase
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The interactionist Approach to parsing
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Semantics can influence processing as the person reads the sentence - all information, semantics and syntax is taken into consideration. The environment also plays a role - place the apple on the towel in the box
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Coherence
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The representation of the text in a person's mind so that information in one part of the text is related to information in another part of the text - easier to understand
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Inference
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The process by which readers create information during reading that is not explicitly stated in the text
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Anaphoric Inference
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Inferences that connect an object or person in one sentence to an object or person in another. Using the word "she" when referring to a specific person mentioned in a prior sentence
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Instrumental inference
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Inferences about tools or methods. Shakespeare sat at his desk and wrote, we can infer her used a quail pen
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Causal Inferences
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Inferences that result in the conclusion that the events described in one clause or sentence were caused by events that occurred in a prior sentence
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Situational Model
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A mental representation of what a text is about - focus on people, objects, locations and events that are being described
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Speech errors are more liking to create
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real words mixed up than words that do not exist
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Phoneme exchanges
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saying fleaky squoor instead of squeaky-floor. Also consonants must replace consonants and vowels replace vowels
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Word exchanged
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I have to fill up my gas with cr - syntactic category rule - nouns slip with nouns, and verbs slip with verbs
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Word substitutions
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Her second Hungarian restaurant, instead of her first Hugarian rhapsody - both are associated with Hungry
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Given-new contract
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The speaker should construct sentences so they include two kinds of information: Given information and new information.. we take given information coupled with new information to form greater meaning
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Syntactic priming
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hearing a statement with a particular syntactic construction increases the chances the responding sentence will contain similar structure
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Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
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the nature of a culture's language can affect the way that people think. It's easier for us to decipher between blue and green then some other cultures
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Categorical perception
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Occurs when stimuli that are in the same categories are more difficult to discriminate from one another than other categories
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Gestalt Approach
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Describes problem solving as restructuring.
1.) how people represent a problem in their mind 2.) How solving a problem involves reorganization or restructuring of this representation.. like changing how we perceive the triangle line in the circle to understand |
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Information-processing approach
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Describes problem-solving as search
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Problem
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When there is an obstacle between a present state and a goal state and the answer isn't clear
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Well-defined problems
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have a definite answer
1+1 |
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Ill-defined problems
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What college should I go to?
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Insight
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A sudden realization of a problem's solution. To experiment: researchers presented people with problems and asked them how close they felt they were to solving it every 15 seconds. Insight exists, for certain types of problems people have a low level of understanding then suddenly get it
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Fixation
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People's tendency to focus on a specific characteristic of the problem that keeps them from arriving at a solution
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Functional Fixedness
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Restricting the use of an object to only it's familiar function - candle and box. When we get a hint or a different representation of the objects we may be able to solve it better...reconstruction
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Situationally produced mental set
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When a person encounters a situation that influences the way they approach the problem
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Tower of Hanoi Problem
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Stack all thee discs on another peg, but follow specific rules
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Problem space
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The initial state, goal state and all the possible intermediate states (each step)
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Means-end analysis
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Reduce the difference between the initial and goal state - this is achieved by creating subgoals - goals that create intermediate states that are closer to the goal
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The acrobat problem showed...
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the importance of how a problem is stated. People took longer to figure out the reserve acrobat because they can't imagine a huge acrobat on a tiny one
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Analogy
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The process of noticing connections between similar problems and applying the solution for one problem to other ones.
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Analogy involves what steps?
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1.) Noticing that there is a relationship
2.) Mapping the correspondence between the source story and the target problem 3.) Applying the mapping to generate a parallel solution |
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Surface features
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Specific elements that make up a problem, make it harder for analogies
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Structural features
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the underlying principles that the problems have in common, great for analogies
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Analogical encoding
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Gets people to discover similar structural features...which eventually illustrates a principle
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Analogical paradox
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people in experiments tend to focus on surface features, while people in the real world use deeper, more structural features
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In-vivo problem solving
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a method in which people are observed to determine how they solve problems in real-world situations - analogies play an important role in scientific research
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Difference between experts and novices?
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Experts use deep structure, novices use surface features
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Divergent thinking
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Thinking that is open-ended and for which there are a large number of potential solutions and no correct answer
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Convergent thinking
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thinking that works towards fining a solution that usually has a correct answer
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Design fixation
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design because you're fixated on something, the cup in the engineering class
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Creative cognition
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a technique to train people to think creatively. Pick 3 object experiment
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Mental imagery
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Experiencing a sensory impression in the absence of sensory input
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Visual Imagery
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Seeing in the absence of visual stimulus
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Imageless-thoughts debate
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Thought is impossible without an image and some thinking it can
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Paired-associate learning
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It's easier to remember things than can be visualized, like truck and tree than things like truth and justice
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Conceptual-peg hypothesis
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Paivio - concrete nouns create images that other words can hang onto
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mental scanning
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participants create mental images and then scan them in their minds
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imagery-debate
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a debate about whether imagery is based on spatial or language mechanisms
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Spatial Representation
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A representation in which different parts of an image can be described as corresponding to specific locations in space
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Epiphenomenon
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pylyshyn believed that that the Spatial representation of images is something that accompanies the real mechanism but is not actually part of it
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Propositional Representation
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a relationship can be represented by symbols, as when the words of language represent objects and relationships between objects. Cat under the table would be UNDER (CAT, TABLE)
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depictive representations
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spatial relationships represented by pictures
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Kosslyn's boat
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supports spatial
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Tacit-knowledge explanation
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participants unconsciously use knowledge about the world in making their judgment, like stimulating taking a longer to go between far distances in images
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Size in the visual field
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We answer questions about something in our visual field more rapidly if the object fills most of the visual field
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Mental-walk task
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Imaged that they were walking towards the mental image of an animal with the task to estimate how far away they were from the animal when they began to experience overflow. people move closer for small animals and less close for large animals - images are spatial
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Memory is best when
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objects are paired together and interact, but don't have to be bizzare
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Method of Loci
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A method in which things to be remembered are placed at different locations in a mental image of a spatial layer. placing images in a familiar area to help remember
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Pegword technique
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involves imagery, but instead, you associate items with concrete words. Make a list of rhyming nouns, one-bun, two-shoe... and to remember something like going to the dentist, imagine teeth eating the bun
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Phonology
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The sound of a language
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semantics
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The meaning of the words or sounds
A.) Morphemes: The smallest meaningful unit that carries meaning B.) Words: meanings to the sounds; the sound is arbitrarily linked with the meaning - you learn to associate this |
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Syntax
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Grammar - structure of the language
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Pragmatics
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How language is used in different situations - we adjust our speech based on the situation we are in
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Productivity of language
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Unique to language - there are an infinite amount of sentences that can be formed, and correct ways of saying multiple things
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Arbitrariness of Units
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Unique to language - there is no connection between the sound of the word the thing that it is naming
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Discreteness
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Unique to language - language contains discrete units, words. There can be moved around and matched
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Displacement
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Unique to language - we can generate language in absence of any direct stimulus
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Behaviorists proposed...
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language is the behavior of though - language is necessary for thought to happen. A physical phenomenon
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Watson believed...
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language is necessary for thought, and when we think, we are talking to ourselves - he though that if we couldn't move our vocal cords we couldn't think
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Smith, Brown, Toman and goodman
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Wanted to see if we need vocal cords to think, so they paralyzed smith's vocal cords - he thought and heard everything
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Whorf
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believed that language determines though. That the meaning of language directs the way we think. Different cultures would think differently.
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Linguistic relativity
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Thought that is relative to language
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Rosch; colors
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Found that Dani people remembered colors the same way whites did - remembered focal colors better than non-focal and agree on a prototpe
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Ideographs
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symbols that represent an idea but do not represent all the information in a word - like hieroglyphs
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orthographies
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written systems that represent the spoken language - reading
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Context
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is top down process, driven by cognitive expectations
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Orthography
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The spelling of the word, what it looks like, We use the shape of the word to get meaning - bottom-up
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Phonological Cues
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We use information from the sound of the word - takes longer to identify touch from couch than tribe from bribe
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Classical Decision theory
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Put forth by economists - people would want to be fully informed of all possible outcomes and come to rational choices and would always maximize value
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Subjective Utility Theory
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Some ways we make decisions are based on how we feel about something. This is subjective phenomenon. Human goals are to increase pleasure and decrease pain
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Boundless reality
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we face up to the actual facts
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Boundless rationality
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we are completely rational
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Bounded rationality (Simon)
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Our rationality has limits, we usually consider options one by one until we find one that suits us
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Heuristic of Representativeness
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People tend to judge the probability of an event by finding a ‘comparable known’ event and assuming that the probabilities will be similar.
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Gambler's fallacy
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Your odds are the same for every ticket you buy
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Availability heuristics
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we make judgments on something based on how easily we can call it to mind. Tversky and Kahnaman, do more words start with r, or have the 3rd letter as R
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Illusory Correlation
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The relationship of the 2 varibles
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Hindsight Bias
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Knew-it-all-along
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Functional equivalency
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It's not the exact representation, it's the function we are interested in
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We tend to remember space...
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based on how we move through it. If I asked you to draw a map, you would draw the roads and paths you take, not to scale, but with landmarks, my internal representation. Reflects experience
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In a cognitive map we tend
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to have right-angle bias - we make California more vertical than it actually is
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We store mental images based
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on how we understand it - bunny/duck picture
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