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109 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Lecture 1. The definition of physiology? What about its scope?
The study of how living organisms work.

From molecule to man.
Lecture 1. What are some of the common ways to think of the body according to Physiology?
1) As compartments and pools.
2) As an organism made up of interacting organ systems.
3) In terms of its regulation.
Lecture 1. In the compartments and pools way of thinking about the body, what are the categories?
1) Intra-cellular: intracellular and interstitial.
2) Extra-cellular: interstitial and vascular.
3) Extra-vascular
Lecture 1. True or false. Tissues are always comprised of aggregates of a single type of cell.
False.
Lecture 1. What percent of total body fluids is made of plasma? Interstitial fluid? Intracellular fluid?
1) Plasma = 7%.
2) Interstitial fluid = 26%.
3) Intracellular fluid = 67%.
Lecture 1. What is the physiological definition of homeostasis?
Homeostasis is the maintenance of certain key physiological variables within narrow limits despite changing conditions.
Lecture 1. The setpoints can or cannot be reset? Can setpoints of different interacting systems be independent of each other?
Yes. No, setpoints of interacting systems are dependent on one another.
Lecture 2. As the blood circulates the body (starting from the heart to the vena cava), the pressure goes up or down? What is responsible for creating this change in pressure.
Down. The heart develops delta P.
Lecture 2. As the blood circulates the body, oxygen is turned into what? What else changes?
Water. The concentration of dissolved gases in the circulation.
Lecture 2. What is an example of dynamic constancy? Give an example.
Levels of a certain variable change or short periods of time, but remains relatively constant over long periods of time. The prime example if blood glucose levels immediately after eating and hours after eating. Another example is the regulation of body sodium content.
Lecture 2. What are some examples of the cycles that we have in our bodies?
1) The ups and down of pressure in the circulatory system.
2) Blood glucose level.
3) Body temperature throughout the day.
4) Concentration of plasma growth hormone.
5) Concentrations of plasma cortisol.
6) Body Na+ content.
Lecture 2. What are the differences between short term and long term homeostasis?
1) Long term homeostasis:
-Control system.
-Steady state.
-Active.
2) Short term homeostasis:
-Physical properties.
-Equilibria.
-Passive.
Lecture 2. What is one common characteristic shared by short term and long term homeostasis?
They will require energy.
Lecture 2. Long-Term homeostasis is often maintained by _____ feedback.
Negative.
Lecture 2. Is steady state equilibrium?
Not necessarily.
Lecture 2. How does negative feedback give a steady state?
It reduces the effects of changing conditions.
Lecture 2. What are three things that negative feedback requires?
1) A sensor AKA "a receptor."
2) An effector.
3) A controller AKA "integrating center."
Lecture 2. What is the physiological definition of a feedback system? What about for e NEGATIVE feedback loop?
One in which the control action is somehow dependent upon the output.

A negative feedback loop is one in which the control action decreases the effect of any disturbance.
Lecture 2. What are some examples of variables controlled by negative feedback?
1) Homeostasis of temperature.
2) Control of plasma pH = (carbon dioxide -><- carbonic acid -><- bicarbonate ion and hydrogen ion). Disturba(carbon dioxide -><- carbonic acid -><- bicarbonate ion and hydrogen ion). The control action (describes above) for dealing with the disturbance is executed by the breathing system.
3) Control of blood glucose = insulin and glucagon of the endocrine system.
4) ATP (a product of glycolysis) inhibiting PFK, which drives further glycolysis.
5) Homeostasis of resting potential- K+ ions going into cell after action potential.
Lecture 2. What are the long and short term control systems for blood pH?
Short term = breathing system.
Long term = the renal system, which also controls concentrations of sodium and potassium, and osmolarity of the ECF.
Lecture 2. What are advantages of negative feedback?
1) Automatic compensation for disturbances.
2) Output approximates input.
3) If components change, the control still works.
Lecture 2. The sensors the detect changes in the body are usually specific/non-specific. What are some examples?
The receptors are specific. Examples are: hormones, tension, pressure, oxygen levels, pH, and metabolites.
Lecture 2. What is the physiological definition of positive feedback?
A control system in whcih the control action INCREASES the effect of any disturbance.
Lecture 2. What are some examples of positive feedback?
1) Proliferation of cells in development.
2) Voltage dependent Na+ channels in an action potential.
3) Sexual reproduction.
4) Sexual arousal.
5) Epilectic seizures.
6) Bearing down in childbirth.
Lecture 2. What are some advantages of positive feedback?
-Drives system to extrenum.
-Rapid, automatic response.
Lecture 2. What is the physiological definition of a feed-forward system?
A control system in which the control action is independent of the output.
Lecture 2. What are the advantages of a feed-forward control system?
1) Can minimize (or even eliminate) the effects of disturbance.
2) fast because anticipate effects or disturbance.
Lecture 2. What are some costs of feed-forward control?
1) Need good prediction (smart controller).
2) Mistakes may be costly.
Lecture 2. What are examples of a feed-forward control system?
1) Saccadic eye movements.
2) Preparation for fight or flight.
3) Voluntary reach movements.
4) Anticipatory control of body temperature.
5) Anticipatory postural adjustments.
Lecture 4. Human bodies use ____ and _____ to control key physiological variables.
Feedback and feed-forward control.
Lecture 4. Within single cells, control is exerted by _______, which can be regulated via __________ and __________.
Protein function, which can be controlled by:

1) By changing protein concentration (synthesis and degradation).
2) Changing protein shape.
Lecture 4. What are the two basic interactions that allow ligand to bind to receptor?
ALL interactions are non-covalent.

1) Hydrophobic interactions.
2) Electrical attractions.
Lecture 4. What are the two thing primarily responsible for the specificity seen in ligand and receptor?
1) Shape.
2) Charge distribution.
Lecture 4. What forms the basis to a wide variety of protein functions?
The ability of various molecules and ions to bind to specific sites on the surface of proteins.
Lecture 4. Equilibrium with respect to ligand binding reflects a balance between ____________ and ___________________, according to the equation: ________. Therefore, high affinity means that that there will be a high or low equilibrium constant?
The equilibrium with respect to ligand binding reflects the tendency for the ligand to stick to the protein and the tendency for it to fall off, according to the equation: L + P -><- LP.

High equilibrium equals a high equilibrium constant.
Lecture 4. The fraction of binding sites with ligand bound depends on __________ and on _________.
1) The concentrations of ligand and binding sites.
2) The affinity.
Lecture 4. T/F. A ligand may bind to more than one protein?
T.
Lecture 4. When two ligands can bind to more than one protein, which one will saturate more readily?
The protein with higher affinity for the ligand.
Lecture 4.What does ligand competition mean? the presence of another competing ligand can do what to the original ligand?
-Ligand competition = when more than one ligand can bind to the same protein.

-the presence of another ligand can alter the biological functions of the first ligand.
Lecture 4. In the brain _______ competes with adenosine for the same binding site. What does adenosine do?
Caffeine. Adenosine causes drowsiness, and caffeine slows this down by increasing alterness.
Lecture 4. What are the two mechanisms with which cells use to regulate the shape of the ligand binding sites?
1) Allosteric modulation-forms a non-covalent bond with the protein at a regulatory site distinct from the functional ligand binding site, changing the shape of the ligand binding site.
2) Covalent modulation-modulator forms a covalent bond with the protein, usually by phosphorylating it.
Lecture 4. What are the two factors that influence protein function?
1) Changing shape of protein.
2) Changing concentrations.
Lecture 4. What is the physiological definition of metabolism? They are regulated mainly by ____, and through what mechanism?
The sum of synthesis and breakdown of organic molecules required for structure and function in a living organism. They are regulated mainly by enzymes, by lowering the activation energy.
Lecture 4. What are the four main deteminants of the rate of a chemical reaction?
1) Reaction concentrations.
2) Activation energy.
3) Temperature.
4) Catalyst.
Lecture 4. Enzymes interact with its substrate according to the equation: ___________. In addition, enzyme binding to substrate has all the characteristics as _______, which are __________, and similarly, are regulated via _____ and ______ modification.
Equation: S (substrate) + E -><- ES -><- P (product) + E.

-Enzyme/substrate binding has all the characteristics of Protein/ligand binding:

1) Specificity.
2) Affinity.
3) Competition.
4) Saturation.

-Regulated by allosteric and covalent modification.
Lecture 4. The rate of glycogenolysis is controlled by what enzyme?
Glycogen phosphorylase.
Lecture 4.The feedforward control of glycogen phosphorylase is executed by what mechanism? What about feedback control?
-Feed-forward control = covalent modification via phosphorylation.

-Feedback control = allosteric modification via AMP.
Lecture 4. In terms of regulation, the only enzymes that are regulated are those _________.
Only the enzymes in key positions of metabolism, such as :

1) Enzymes catalyzing reactions with large drops in activation energy.
2) Enzymes at branch points in metabolic networks.
Lecture 4. T/F. Enzymes can affect BOTH the forward and backward reactions of a chemical equilibrium? They only do what to the equilibrium?
True. Enzymes only affect how fast the chemical equilibrium is reached.
Lecture 4. What two main things can change dramatically the activity of an enzyme? However, which one can change the saturation of the enzyme?

Which regulation is the long term regulation, which one is the short term regulation?
1) Allosteric/covalent modifications.
2) Increasing concentrations of the enzyme.

-Increasing the concentrations of enzyme can change the saturation level of the enzyme. Allosterically modifying the enzyme only changes the rate of product formation, without changing the same saturation level.

-Allosterically modifying the enzyme is the short term regulation, and changing enzyme concentrations is the long term regulation.
Lecture 4. Cellular communication requires what two things?
1) Signals (ligands).
2) Receptors (binding proteins).
Lecture 4. Hydrophobic signals usually do what to the cell? What about hydrophilic signals?
Hydrophobic signals usually change gene expression and hydrophilic signals usually incur fast, rapid short-lived responses that can be of drastic impact.
Lecture 4. In the regulation of metabolism through enzyme activity, the allosteric modulators may be products of _____, covalent modulators are often activated by ______, and is considered _______ (adjective), and why is that?

Hence, overall, the rate of metabolism can be adjusted to meet ________
In regulation of metabolism through enzyme activity:

-The allosteric modulators may be products of other cellular reactions.

-Covalent modulators are often activated by chemical signals the cells receive, such as hormones.

-The regulation is considered complex, because multiple enzymes in a pathway, with multiple modulators per enzyme, branch points.

-Overall, the rate of metabolism can be adjusted to meet various metabolic demands.
Lecture 4. Illustrate what a branch point looks like in metabolism.
Product 1 <---via enzyme 1--- Substrate ---via enzyme 2---> Product 2.
Lecture 4. Lipid soluble ligands are often where in the cell? what about water soluble ones?
Lipid soluble ligands usually bind to the cytosolic (within cell) or nuclear receptors. they pass through the plasma membrane easily via diffusion. Water soluble ligands usually bind to receptors on the surface of the cell, which are proteins that span the membrane and can activate diverse responses.
Lecture 4. T/F. The binding of one specific ligand to one specific receptor initiates one specific response.
False. Depending on where the rector is located in the cell, different responses can be elicited by ligand binding.
Lecture 4. What is the definition of receptor up and down regulation?
Receptor up regulation is the increase of total number of target-cell receptors for a given messenger in response to a chronic low extracellular concentrations of the messenger. Receptor down regulation is the opposite.
Lecture 4. What type of signals (ligands), water or lipid soluble, usually involves second messengers? What are two main characteristics of 2nd messengers?
Water soluble signals. Examples of second messengers are: IP3, Ca++, DAG, cAMP, cGMP, etc.

-Second messengers usually can amplify a message sent by the original ligand and can have multiple effects.
Lecture 7. What is the myelin on neurons formed by? Which forms myelin in the neurons of the CNS? What about those on the PNS?
1) Schwann cells-forms myelin around neurons in the PNS.
2) Oligodendrocytes.-forms myelin on neurons in CNS.
Lecture 7. What is needed for carrying vesicles that travel from the neuron cell body to the synapse?
Motor proteins that "walk" on MTs.
Lecture 7. What comprises the central nervous system?
CNS = Brain + spinal cord + all parts of interneurons in the CNS.
Lecture 7. What is the difference between afferent and efferent neurons? What about interneurons?
-Afferent neurons carry information towards the CNS.
-Efferent neurons carry information out of the CNS, and ends on muscles, glands, and/or other neurons.
-Interneurons functions as integrators and signal changers, and integrate groups and afferent and efferent neurons into reflex circuits.
Lecture 7. What kind of neurons are most neurons in the body? (i.e. afferent, efferent, interneuron) Where are these neurons?
Interneurons, which are entirely in the CNS.
Lecture 7. Where are the cell bodies, and axons and/or dendrites of afferent and efferent neurons? What kind of neurons have no dendrites (afferent or efferent)?
-Efferent neurons have cell bodies, dendrites, and small parts of the axon in the CNS, and most of the axon is in the PNS.
-Afferent neurons have cell bodies and most of the axon in the PNS, only short central processes of the axon are in the CNS.
-Afferent neurons have no dendrites.
Lecture 7. Only about _____ % of the cells in the nervous system are neurons. The rest are _____.
-10 percent of all cells in the nervous system are neurons. The rest are glial cells.
Lecture 7. What glial cells are responsible for maintaining homeostasis of neurons? What do they do specifically?
Astrocytes, which provide energy and substrates for neural transmission. They also act as barriers modulate synaptic transmission, interface with capillaries, etc.
Lecture 7. Resting potential is defined as ______ mV? In the measuring electrode, what area is defined as the reference?
Resting potential = -70 mV.
The extracellular environment is use as the reference.
Lecture 7. The chemical equilibrium of ions inside and outside the cell is controlled by what two forces?
Chemical equilibrium of ion in cells is controlled by osmotic and electric forces.
Lecture 7. An ion's equilibrium potential can be calculated by what equation?

Individually, Na+ and K+ have negative or positive membrane potentials?
Nernst equation; E = (RT/ZF) log (Cout)/(Cin).

If at room temperature, E = (61/Z) log (Cout/Cin).

-K+ has a negative individual membrane potential and Na+ has positive.
Lecture 7. The true membrane potential is determined by the _______ and _________of what ions?

-____ has a large gradient with large P, ______ has large gradient with small P, and _____ has large gradient with large P.
-Concentration gradients and permeabilities of all PERMEABLE ions, which are: K+, CL-, and Na+.

-K+, Na+, Cl-.
Lecture 7. Ion potentials are originally established by what? Why is the resting potential closer to that of potassium? Resting potentials are equilibrium potentials, therefore, what needs to be done is this equilibrium is perturbed?
Pump. Because K has greater permeability. Further pumping.
Lecture 7. Identify the membrane potentials that would correlate with the following terms:

1) Overshoot.
2) Depolarization.
3) Re-polarizing.
4) Hyper-polarizing.
1) Overshoot = when membrane potential shoots above 0 mV stating at 0 mV.
2) Depolarizing = when membrane potential starts from resting potential and becomes more positive.
3) Re-polarizing = when membrane potential starts positive and goes back to the resting potential.
4) Hyper-polarizing = when the membrane potential becomes even more negative than the original resting potential.
Lecture 7. Graded potentials are defined as _______, and are named according to the ____ or _____.

Why is it called "graded?"
1) Changes in membrane potentials that are confined to a relatively small region of the plasma membrane; location or function.
2) It is called a graded potential because their magnitude is related directly to the size of the stimulus.
Lecture 7. Do graded potentials have a threshold and refractory period? Can a local current through an ion channel depolarize neighboring membranes? The degree of depolarization of these neighboring membranes are determined by what?
Graded potentials have no threshold and refractory period. Yes, it can. Degree of depolarization depends on stimulus intensity and distance from stimulus site.
Lecture 7. Can graded potentials only depolarize?
No. They can polarize as well as depolarize a membrane.
Lecture 7. What are the synpatic, receptor, and pacemaker threshold potentials?
1) Synaptic graded potential = a graded potential change produced in the post-synaptic neuron in response to the release of a NT by the pre-synaptic terminal.
2) Receptor graded potential = A graded potential produced at the peripheral endings of afferent neurons in response to stiumulus.
3) Pacemaker graded potential = a spontaneously occurring graded potential that occurs in certain specialized cells.
Lecture 7. What is defined as the equilibrium potential? How is different from the resting potential?
The equilibrium potential is the voltage difference across a membrane that produces a flux of a given ion species that is equal but opposite to the flux due to the concentration gradient of that same ion species.

-The resting potential is the steady trans-membrane potential of a cell that is NOT producing an electrical signal.
Lecture 7. Why does the longitudinal current in an axon decrease in magnitude as you go further from the initial site of depolarization?
Leakage of charge from the axon.
Lecture 7. Action potentials are caused by reversals in ________ due to what channels?
APs are due to reveresals of membrane polarity due to voltage-gated channels.

-APs are initiated when the sodium flows into the cell following the opening of Na+ voltage dependent channels.

-Re-polarizations occurs because the Na+ dependent voltage channels close and the K+ dependent voltage channels open.
Lecture 7. Do Na+ channels close immediately during the start of the re-polarization process.
No, a tethered ball GRADUALLY plugs and inactivates the Na+ dependent voltage channels, resulting in slow inactivation.
Lecture 7. How does TTX block an action potential?
TTX blocks action potentials by binding to pores of the voltage-gated, fast Na+ channels in nerve cell membranes, which prevents the depolarization of the cell.
Lecture 7. Are the changes in ion permeability necessary for an AP an all-or-none phenomenon?
Yes.
Lecture 7. Why is the propagation of an action potential usually one way?
There is a refractory period that immediately follows in the region that just had an AP, which drives the membrane potential into the hyper-polarization range.
Lecture 7. Identify the differences between graded and action potentials in the following categories:

1) Summation of stimulus.
2) Existence of a threshold.
3) Existence of a refractory period.
4) Does response (change in membrane potential) decrease with distance?
5) How is the stimulus/response initiated?
6) Mechanism depends on what?
7) Depolarization possible? Hyper-polarization possible, or both?
8) Does duration vary with initial conditions?
9) Does the amplitude vary with something?
1) Only graded can be summed.
2) and 3) Graded potentials have no refractory period or threshold while APs do.
4) For graded potentials only, the response (change in membrane potential) decreases with distance from the original stimulus site.
5) Graded potentials are initiated by an environmental stiumulus, by NTs, or spontaneously. APs are initiated by graded potentials.
6) Mechanism of a graded potential depends on ligand gated channels or other chemical or physical changes. APs' mechanisms depends on voltage gated channels.
7) APs can only depolarize, while graded potentials can do both.
8) Duration for graded potentials vary with initial conditions while in APs the duration is constant for a given cell type under constant conditions.
9) Amplitude of graded potentials vary with the size of the initiating event while in APs the amplitude is independent of the size of the initiating event, as it is an all-or-none event.
Lecture 7. No matter where an action potential is initiated (even in the middle of an axon), it can only depolarize the region of the axon before or after this site?
After.
Lecture 7. Synapses are specialized junctions in which _____ of a pre-synaptic neuron affects that of a a post-synaptic neuron.
Electrical activity.
Lecture 7. Explain the sequence of events at the synapse as an AP travels to the tip of the pre-synaptic neuron.
1) AP reaches terminal of the pre-synpatic neuron.
2) Voltage gated Ca++ channels open.
3) Ca++ enters axon terminal.
4) NTs release and diffusion.
5) NTs binds to post-synaptic receptors.
6) NTs removed from synaptic cleft.
Lecture 7. What ion is needed for the vesicles containing NTs from the pre-synpatic neuron to enter the post-synaptic neuron. Before this happens, where are these vesicles containing the NTs?
Ca++. Before this happens, the vesicles containing the NTs are in vesicles bound to the pre-synaptic neuron by SNAREs.
Lecture 7. What is the difference between EPSPs and IPSPs? What does the neuron do with these?
-EPSPs are graded potentials that moves the membrane potential closer to the threshold for firing an action potential.

-IPSPs is a graded potential that doe the opposite.

-The neuron integrates these signals, then makes the decision to fire or not.
Lecture 7. How can pre-synaptic inhibition or facilitation occur?
Axo-axonal interactions.
Lecture 7. Most drugs that act on the nervous system act on what?
Most drugs that work on the nervous system alter synaptic strength by changing some synaptic mechanisms.
Lecture 7. What are the factors that affect synaptic strength?
Refer to table 6-5.
Lecture 7. What are the five classes of compounds that are known to be NTs?
1) Acetylcholine.
2) Biogenic amines (i.e. serotonin, histamine, catecholamines, etc.).
3) Amino acids (i.e. excitatory AAs such as glutamate and inhibitory ones such as GABA).
4) Neuro-peptides (i.e. opioids, oxytocin, etc.).
5) Misc. (i.e. gases such as NO, purines such ATP or adenosine).
Lecture 8. Mylinated axons only have voltage gated channels at ______.
Nodes of Ranvier.
Lecture 8. the drug Botox specifically blocks the release of what NT?
ACh.
Lecture 8. The PNS is divided into what two categories, one of which is further divided into another two categories.
PNS = Autonomic NS + Somatic NS.

-Autonomic NS = Sympathetic NS + Parasympathetic NS.
Lecture 8. There are about 10 ^ ?? neurons in the brain and about 10 ^ ___ synapses. It uses up about what percentage of your energy at rest and has about how many APs per neuron per second?
There are about 10^11 neurons in the brain.
There are about 10^14 synapses in the brain.
The brain uses about 20 percent of your energy at rest and has about 1 AP per neuron per second.
Lecture 8. T/F. You were born with all the neurons you will ever have.
False.
Lecture 8. The only target of the somatic nervous system are the ______. In addition, it consists of a _____ neuron between the CNS and skeletal muscle cells. The somatic nervous system can only lead to muscle excitation or inhibition?
Muscles. It consists of only one neuron between the CNS and the skeletal muscle cells. The somatic nervous system can only lead to muscle excitation.
Lecture 8. The autonomic nervous system has how many neurons between the CNS and the target? What are its targets. Can is be excitatory or inhibitory or both?
-In the autonomic nervous system 2.
-It has multiple targets.
-Can be inhibitory or excitatory.
Lecture 8. Does the autonomic nervous system include the brain.
Yes, it includes the CNS.
Lecture 8. The sympathetic nervous system is associated with _______ responses and _______ responses in the parasympathetic nervous system.
The sympathetic nervous system is associated with "emergency" responses. The parasympathetic nervous system is associated with the "rest and digest" system.
Lecture 8. How are the sympathetic trunks oriented relative to the spinal cord?
The sympathetic trunks are chains of ganaglia that are parallel to either side of the spinal cord. the trunk interacts closely with the associated spinal nerves.
Lecture 8. Sensory receptors that transduce stimulus energy into a receptor potential are either _____ or ______.
Specialized ending of afferent neurons or separate cells that signal the afferent neuron.
Lecture 8. The cell bodies of most afferent sensory neurons are usually where in the entire cell?
Cell bodies are usually in the middle of the afferent neuron.
Lecture 8. At the junction of the receptor membrane and axon membrane of the afferent neuron, what happens? Before this happens what happens on the receptor membrane after the original stimulation?
The receptor potential is encoded into action potentials. The axon membrane (at the first Node of Ranvier) has voltage dependent channels. Before this happens, stimulus energy causes changes in a receptor membrane which depolarizes, making a graded receptor potential, which is later encoded into an action potential in the axon if the receptor potential codes for something that goes past the threshold into an AP at the first Node of Ranvier. Refer to figure 7-2.
Lecture 8. Often, larger stimuli are encoded into a higher _____ of APs.
Frequency.
Lecture 8. What is the receptive field?
The area that, when stimulated, leads to activity in an afferent neuron.
Lecture 8. What does population information mean? What is the reason for its function?
A population of receptors that can encode more information than a single receptor, because :

1) There are receptors in different locations.
2) There are receptors with different sensitivities.