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167 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What are the components of ethnobotanical research?
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Convention on biological diversity
Taxonomy and geography Biodiversity, ecology, and evolution Ethnoecological management of useful species Ethnobiological uses Public health contributions Pharmacology with mechanism of action Isolation and synthesis of pharmacologically active pure molecules from plants Chemical analogue synthesis Bioengineered production of active compounds |
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Where are areas of high global biodiversity/cultural diversity?
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California, Western Africa, Mediterranean, Western India, Madagascar, Pacific Islands, and more
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What are the different resource systems?
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Biodiversity/Ecosystem resources, ethnolinguistic/cultural resources, and ethnobiological resources
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What do the following ethnobiological disciplines consist of: ethnoecoloy, ethnotaxonomy, medical and nutritional ethnobotany, and ethnoepidemiology?
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Ethnoecology – ecosystem management and climate change
Ethnotaxonomy – biodiversity monitoring and inventories Medical and nutritional ethnobotany – public health Ethnoepidemiology – emerging diseases, diarrhea respiratory infections, malaria |
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What is the ethnobiology triad?
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The connection of biodiversity/ecosystem resources from botany, ethnolinguistic/cultural resources from anthropologists, and diseases/human health resources from doctors and those in the medical field.
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What percentage of the world’s population uses traditional botanical medicine for primary healthcare?
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About 80% of the world population
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Compare the benefits of traditional medicines and pharmaceuticals.
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Traditional medicines are under more local control, more available, act as a better treatment with proper dosage and treatment, and provide local capital growth. In contrast, pharmaceuticals are from an outside source, costly, and are often improperly used due to lack of information. The best solution is a complement of traditional and modern medicines, where traditional medicines are mostly used with modern medicines for difficult to treat or new diseases.
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Describe Incan medicine in the Andes Mountains of South America
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There was good public health through annual health ceremonies called Citua when families cleaned their homes. There were also bath and sewage systems, welfare for the elderly and crippled, surgeries for relieving cranial pressure and tumor excisions, biting ants to close wounds, amputations, and the use of botanical medicines.
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How is cocaine used?
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Cocaine from the Erythroxylum coca and its derivatives are often used in surgery, but can also be chewed daily to enhance endurance and act as coffee. In a medical setting, it is used as a local anesthetic and local vasoconstrictor.
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What are the derivatives of cocaine and how are they used?
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Prococaine HCl, also known as novacaine is used by dentists to block pain at nerves.
Tetracaine is used as a topical anesthetic to the cornea. Lidocaine, also known as xylocaine, is used as a local anesthetic and to treat ventricular arrhythmias, Tocanide, also known as tonocard, is used to treat arrhythmias, as is procalnamide. |
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How is D-tubocurarine from Chondroendron tomentosum used?
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In traditional societies it is used as a poison on curare darts to hunt animals.
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How many modern medical drug prescriptions are for plant derived pharmaceuticals?
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25% - which represent 119 pharmaceuticals derived from 90 different botanical species.
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What percentage of new drugs are derived from natural products?
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From 1983 – 1994, 44% of all new drugs were derived from natural products. About ½ of all antihypertensive drugs, 60% of anticancer drugs, and 65% of anti-infective drugs. This shows that natural products are a pipeline to improved health.
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Describe the history of medicine in Aztec and Mayan culture.
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Mayans kept records of plant uses in codices and describe over twelve hundred plants. The Aztecs had many botanical gardens rich in medical plants. They also used human hair as sutures in surgery. Cortez considered the Aztec physicians to be advance.
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What is the US trend of botanicals used as medicine?
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There has been a decrease in the number of botanicals used as medicines over time, but there continues to be a number of naturally developed pharmaceuticals.
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What are some of the factors that contributed to the US trend?
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The Flexner report in 1910 limited AMA schools to use only the molecular pharmaceutical approach. This caused a rapid removal of botanical species from the pharmacopoeia and a lack of research into botanical species. This was not driven by science, was related to politics and economics to have a monopoly on medical treatment, difficulties in patenting herbs, beliefs that chemically created molecules were better than natural medicines, and the increase in urban populations with a simultaneous decreases in rural populations.
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What is “medical McCarthyism?”
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It is an institutionalized bias against botanical medicines that led to changes in medical education and training.
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What is the DSHEA?
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The Dietary Supplement and Health Act allowed botanical substances to be legally sold in the US as a result of a grass-roots movement tied to more options in health care.
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How are botanical medicines used in other countries?
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In Germany and England, botanical medicines are strongly used and regulated. There is also institutionalized botanical medicine in Asia.
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What is included in the phytomedical profile?
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Genus and species, plant family, common name, phytogeography, habitat/ecosystem, habit/plant description, abundance of plant parts used, cultural origins of use, ethnomedical uses, public health contributions, preparation, active compounds, chemical class, active compound derivatives, mechanism of action, receptors, and therapeutic uses
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What is the trend of medical development from natural plant sources?
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Medical plant -> traditional medicine preparation -> standardized extract -> single molecule
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What is the difference between a pure molecule and plant extract?
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A pure molecule contains the main activity of the plant extract, while the plant extract is a complex of compounds, which is closer to the original plant.
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How are case studies used in ethnomedical research?
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By following a healer and watching treatments, as well as providing information on specific cases, research can point to new treatments through intensive detailed information collection with specimen documentation.
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What is the difference between ethnobotanical and random collection?
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Random collections collect plants at random and test for bioactivity that may be useful for treatment. Random collection is also connected to functional genomics, combinatorial chemistry, and high through put screening, and bioinformatics. In contrast, ethnobotanical collection focuses on specific plants referred by native populations.
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What are other specimen collection strategies?
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There is random, taxonomic, chemotaxonomic, geographical, ecological, physiological, and ethnomedical.
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What are the results of the different collection strategies?
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Traditional plant medicines have higher activity than plants collected at random. This is seen for anti-cancer, anti-malarial, anti-viral, and even anti-HIV. It was also seen in treatment of diabetes type 2.
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What are the components of the peripheral nervous system?
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In contrast to the central nervous system, which contains the brain and spinal cord, the peripheral nervous system contains sensory-motor and autonomic nervous, which contains the parasympathetic and autonomic nervous system.
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Describe the autonomic nervous system nerve arrangements.
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Signals start at the spinal cord and are sent through the pre-ganglionic nerve. For the sympathetic nervous system, at the ganglia, there is an acetylcholine neurotransmitter to a nicotinic receptor followed by norepinephrine neurotransmitter for an adrenergic receptor. The parasympathetic pathway is similar, but the second neurotransmitter is acetylcholine to a muscarinic receptor. For the somatic motor pathway, there is only one synapse with acetylcholine to a nicotinic receptor. At the synapse, there is a release of neurotransmitter to the post-synaptic neuron.
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Distinguish between an agonist and an antagonist.
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Agonists enhance a receptor’s action. In contrast, antagonists block a receptor and prevent its action.
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Distinguish between an endogenous and an exogenous molecule.
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Endogenous molecules from within the body, while exogenous molecules from outside, such as a pharmaceutical or botanical.
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Adrenomimetic
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Ach – neurotransmitter for pre-ganglionic synapse of the sympathetic nervous system, pre and post ganglionic synapse of parasympathetic pathway, and the synapse of the somatic motor pathway, activates nicotinic and muscarinic receptors
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Anticholinergic effect
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Nicotinic – respond to endogenous Ach and exogenous nicotine, and are blocked by D-tubocurarine, toxiferine, and botox
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Describe the autonomic nervous system.
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It is composed of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system. The systems can work together or against each, but mostly work independently. Inhibiting one system allows the other to dominate. Also, pre-ganglionic fibers of the ANS originate in the spinal cord and extend to end-organs.
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Describe the sympathetic response.
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It is a fight or flight response that leads to increased heart rate, heart contractions, more blood to the muscles and heart using Ach and Ach at the ganglia and sweat glands, with norepinephrine at the end organ. This response is anabolic and uses energy.
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Describe the parasympathetic response.
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This system is anabolic and builds up energy by promoting digestion and slowing the heart rate. This uses acetylcholine at the ganglia and the end-organs.
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What are the parasympathetic compounds modes of action?
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There is the direct stimulation of the receptor with more Ach or by preventing the action of Ach’ase.
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What are the main muscarinic cholinergic receptor agonists?
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They include acetylcholine, synthetic choline esters like metacholine, carbachol, betaenchol, cholinomimetic plant alkaloids like muscarine, pliocarpine, and arecoline.
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Muscarine
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Muscarine is derived from Amanita spp. mushrooms that are found in Siberia and North America on the forest floor. Muscarine is a diaphoretic and causes salivation, lacrimation, vision problems, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, hypotension, bradycardia, and bronchospasms. Muscarine is important for understanding Muscarinic receptors. The antidote for muscarine overdose is atropine.
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Pilocarpine
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Pliocaprine is isolated from Plicarpus jaborandi and is found in tropical America and the West Indies. It is used to induce salivation and sweating by being a Muscarinic agonist. This is used to treat dry mouth and relieve intraocular pressure for glaucoma.
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Areca catechu in Arecaceae
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Areca catechu is also known as betelnut and is found in the forests of South Asia, Indomalaysia, and Oceania. Betelnut is mixed with the leaves of Piper betle and calcium carbonate. The active compounds are alkaloids, which act to increase salivation, energy, and treat intestinal worms.
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What do anticholinesterase compounds do?
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These compounds include physostigmine, and prevent hydrolysis of acetylcholine leading more neurotransmitter in the synapse. Other synthetic compounds like insecticides like parathion and malathion, and nerve poisons, like sarin and tabun are also anticholinesterase compounds.
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Physostigmine in Fabaceae
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Physostigmine is also known as calabar, ordeal, and esere bean and is found in the rainforest of West Africa. It is used as an ordeal poison for witchcraft. This results in sweating, reduced heart rate, and smooth muscle stimulation of the intestines and bladder. It is used for glaucomas and an antidote to anticholinergic poisonings.
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Describe the medical system of ancient Mesopotamia.
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There was documentation of medical practice through clay tablets and included a legal code around medical practice. They used plants for treatment, isolated individuals with contagious diseases, and focused on cleanliness.
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Describe the ancient medical system of Egypt.
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Egypt also had accomplished doctors and written documentation of medical practice on papyrus.
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What was the importance of the Ebers Papyrus?
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The textbook describes how to examine patients, provide diagnosis, make a prognosis, and treat patients.
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What are antimuscarinic (anticholinergic) compounds?
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These compounds are also known as parasympathetic depressants and they block the parasympathetic system at the post-ganglionic receptors, allowing the sympathetic system to dominate. This results in dilated pupils and CNS changes. Examples include atropine and scopolamine.
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Atropa belladonna in Solanaceae
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Belladonna acts as an intestinal antispasmodic, dilates pupils, and can act as a hallucinogen. Belladonna poisoning causes an individual to look red, be dry, have tachycardia, and dilated pupils. The antidote is physostigmine.
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Hyoscyamus niger in Solanaceae
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Hyoscyamus is also known as henbane and is found in open fields. The leaves and flower tops are rich in atropine and the leaves and seeds are rich in scopolamine. It has similar uses to belladonna and is used as an intestinal antispasmodic, mydriatic, enebriant, and hallucinogen.
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Mandragora officinarum in Solanaceae
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Also known as mandrakes, which are herbs with thick tuberous roots found in Europe and Asia. They are used as an intestinal antispasmodic and can be used in hallucinogenic preparations. Their active compounds are atropine, which is used as an antispasmodic and used to be used in surgery.
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Datura stramonium in Solanaceae
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Datura stramonium is also called wysoccan, Jimson weed, Jamestown weed, and thorn apple. It is native to North America, but is now found around the world. Datura is used to treat asthma and as a hallucinogen. Its active compounds include scopolamine and atropine. These are used for similar reasons as the other
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Brugamansia spp. in Solanaceae
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Brugamansia is also known as trumpet flower. It has pendulous flowers and contains scopolamine. It acts as a powerful psychoactive drug.
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What do exogenous ganglionic receptor compounds do?
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These compounds act as agonists and increase the activity of nicotinic receptors. Large doses of these compounds lead to a constriction of capillaries and arterioles, an increase in blood pressure followed by sweating during the stimulatory phase. However, the large doses cause a decreased action by the receptors and result in a paralytic phase, when blood pressure will drop and the individual will go into shock. Example compounds include nicotine and lobeline.
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Nicotianan tabacum in Solanaceae
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Tobacco was originally found in South America and is used as an enebriant and CNS stimulant due to the alkaloid, nicotine. Nicotine acts to increase dopamine levels and stimulate the autonomic ganglia. Nicotine is used to deal with tobacco withdrawal, as an athletic performance enhancer, and to improve short term memory and mental function. However, the last two uses are not recommended, since they can lead to nicotine addiction.
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Lobelia inflate in Campanulaceae
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Lobelia is also known as Indian tobacco and is used a respiratory expectorant, lung congestion, and as a smoking deterrant. It uses the same receptors as nicotine, but has a more mild effect.
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What are neuromuscular blocking agents? What are their mechanisms of action?
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These agents work at the motor end plate and affect striated muscle contraction. This usually results in paralysis. This includes D-tubocurarine and botox. The mechanism of action includes increasing the activity of acetylcholinesterase to decrease the amount of acetylcholine in the synapse or blocking the receptor of the striated muscle causing an increased threshold of acetylcholine to be required before the neuron will reach action potential.
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Chondrodendon tomentose in Menispermaceae
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Curare, which is also known as pareira root, and pareira brava, is found in the rain forests of tropical South America, where it is used to make poison arrows, which are shot through blow guns to catch prey. It acts primarily in highly innervated muscles, but will also paralyze respiratory muscles resulting in respiratory failure, and can decrease blood pressure to the point of circulatory collapse. However, curare can be used during surgery as a muscle relaxant.
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Strychnos toxifera in Strychnaceae
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Another compound called toxiferine, which is found in the bark of the Strychnos toxifera, is also used in modern medicine for surgeries, where is can block receptors at the striated muscle nerve plate.
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Botulism toxin
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Botox is taken from the bacteria Clostridium botulism, which can inhibit release of acetylcholine to motor-neural, muscarinic, and sweat glands. However, because of that, botox can be used to relax muscles cosmetically to remove wrinkles, to treat strabismus and decrease hyperactive muscle activity around the eye, and to treat excessive sweating.
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Describe traditional Chinese medicine.
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Traditional Chinese medicine has a long history dating back to 2900 B.C. There was the documented philosophy of yin and yang by Fu-Shi, medical treatments and acupuncture by Shen-Nung, and Neiching by Huang-Li, which is a classic book on disease. Chinese medicine focuses on 5 elements where disease is the result of disharmony among the elements. Diagnosis involves the pulse and the tongue. Treatment followed 1800 medicines as well as complex physiotherapy, such as acupuncture and moxibustion, and preliminary inoculations. Today, Chinese medicine is still central and works complementary to modern medicine techniques.
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What is the action of sympathomimetic (adrenergic) compounds?
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Endogenous catecholamines include epinephrine, norepinephrine, and doapnine. Exogenous molecules from Ephedra sinica include ephedrine, albuterol, and other derivatives. Cocaine also is a sympathomimetic that is derived from Erythorxylum coca. This results in causing more open bronchioles to treat asthma, sinusitis, and as a stimulant.
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Ephedra spp. in Gnetaceae
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Common names for some of the species include Ma Huang and Morman tea. The main active compound is ephedrine, which stimulates all receptors and acts on the CNS. Other derivative molecules have also been developed to stimulate only specific subreceptors.
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Erythroxylum coca
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This plant’s active molecule, cocaine can act to prevent the re-uptake of norepinephrine causing more norepinephrine to remain in the synapse. This causes increase response from the adrenergic receptors of the sympathetic nervous system
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Describe Ayurvedic medicine.
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Ayurvedic medicine contributed to other ancient medical knowledge bases, such as Persia, the Arab world, Greece, Europe, Tibet, Indochina, and Indonesia due to its common point at the crossroads of major ancient empires. Ayurvedic medicine is recorded in Vedic scripture and Sanskrit texts that included information on surgeries, doctor’s trainings, and a doctor’s oath. It was centered around the vital force, chakras, basic principles, and other concepts. Diagnosis involved temperaments, body build, pulse, and urine analysis, which can be linked to modern genomic analysis. There was also documented medical ecology and many types of treatment, as well as surgery, hypnosis, and hot iron cauterization. Today, Ayurvedic medicine is not as big as traditional Chinese medicine, but is still found in India, Europe, and parts of the US.
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What are anti-adrenergic compounds?
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These compounds act to prevent response from the sympathetic nervous system. One mechanism is by damaging vesicle formation and fusion, which prevents the release of neurotransmitter into the synapse to bind receptors. One example compound is reserpine.
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Reserpine’s physiological effects
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Reserpine acts to decrease the sympathetic response, which decreases catecholamine levels. This causes a decrease in serotonin levels, which decreases norepinephrine. This ultimately causes a decrease in blood pressure.
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Rauvolfia serpentine
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The main active compounds are reserpine, rescinnamine, and ajmalicine. These compounds act to decrease catecholamine levels in the tissue. This plant is used to treat psychosis, mania, hypertension, and circulatory disorders.
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Rauvolfia canescens in Apocynaceae
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This related plant contains deserpidine, which has the same mechanism as reserpine, but is used as a tranquilizer, in addition to treating psychosis and as an antihypertensive.
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What are the different categories of endogenous CNS neurotransmitters? Give examples of each.
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There are tryptamines, such as serotonin also known as 5-hydroxytrptamine, catecholamines, which include norepinephrine, epinephrine, and dopamine, cholinergic molecules at muscarininc receptors like acetylcholine, GABA, adenosine receptors, endrophins/enkephalins, and cannabinoids. There are also minor groups, such as histamine, which is present in hypothalamic neurons, glutamate which is an excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain stem and spinal cord, and glycine, which is an inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.
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What is a possible treatment for depression?
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One treatment is to increase the levels of serotonin and this can be done by using serotonin re-uptake inhibitors, like Prozac and St. John’s wort.
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Hypericum perforatum
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St. John’s wort grows an invasive weed in open fields and is used to treat depression, promote wound healing, and treat type 2 diabetes mellitus. It contains hyperforin, which is an antidepressant and antidiabetic, as well as hypericin, flavonoids, and xanthones. Hyperforin inhibits serotonin re-uptake and may inhibit MAO action. In clinical studies, it was found to be helpful in treating mild to moderate depression.
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What does LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide) do?
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LSD, with its similar structure to serotonin, causes hyper arousal of the central nervous system, causes stimulation at serotonin subreceptors, activates 5-HT1A and 5-HT1C receptors, increase levels of 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid which is a serotonin precursor and affect serotonin turnover.
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What are other compounds similar to serotonin that cause hallucinogenic effects?
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Other compounds include the ergot alkaloid, lysergol from the Claviceps purpurea fungus, LSD-25, a synthetic derivative of lysergol, psilocin from various mushroom families, morning glories from Turbina corymbose and Ipomoea violaceae, as well as mescaline from peyote and San Pedro cactus, and harmine, harmaline, and beta carbolines from caapi.
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What is the epinephrine synthesis pathway?
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Tyrosine -> Levodopa -> dopamine -> norepinephrine -> epinephrine
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Describe the role of dopamine.
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Dopamine is commonly found in the midbrain neurons and is released from the hypothalamus. Its acts to inhibit prolactin secretion. Dopamine is degraded by MAO or monoamine oxidase and COMT.
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How does amphetamine affect the body?
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They enhance dopamine receptors and stimulate the central nervous system.
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What are examples of amphetamines?
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Most are synthetic molecules and include amphetamine, methamphetamine, which is derived from Ephedra sinica, methylphenidate (Ritalin to treat ADD), and methlenedioxymethamphetamone, which is also known as ecstasy.
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What is the mechanism of amphetamines?
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How does nicotine affect the body?
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Nicotine enhances dopamine receptors and stimulates the CNS.
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What is the mechanism of nicotine?
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Nicotine will increase dopamine levels by activating the nucleus accumbens. There may also be release of endogenous opioids.
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Describe how cocaine affects the central nervous system.
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Cocaine will inhibit re-uptake of both norepinephrine and dopamine meaning more neurotransmitter will remain in the synapse.
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Describe Parkinson’s disease. How can it be treated?
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Parkinson’s disease is the result of the degeneration of the basal ganglia and the substantia niigra. This reduces the amount of dopamine in the brain, putamen, and caudate nucleus. Its symptoms include a stooped posture, shuffling gate, mask-like facial expression, tremors of the arm at rest that disappear with intentional movement, and in severe cases, complete immobility. It can be treated by providing precursors to dopamine or dopamine agonists.
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Mucuna spp.
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Mucuna contains levodopa and is used to increase nerve function, lessen irritability, and as a nerve tonic. It can also be used to treat Parkinson’s disease to treat immobility and postural imbalance.
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Clavaceps purpura
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Ergot contains many active compounds, such as ergine, isoergine, ergometrine, and lysergol. Lysergol is a hallucinogenic. However, two chemical derivatives, bromocriptine and pergolide are used a dopamine receptor agonists to treat Parkinson’s disease.
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What compounds enhance norepinephrine receptors?
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Cocaine, ephedrine, and caffeine
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Describe the action of ephedrine and its mechanism of action.
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Ephedrine enhances norepinephrine secretion and stimulates the CNS by acting at the nerve terminus.
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Describe the action of caffeine and mechanism.
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Caffeine arouses the brain, increases alertness, and delays fatigue. It acts on the CNS by blocking adenosine receptors and increasing norepinephrine secretion from the nerve terminus.
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What are sources of caffeine?
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Caffeine can come from coffee from Coffee robusta, tea from Camellia sinensis, chocolate from Theobroma cacao, cola nut from Cola acuminate, or mate from Ilex paraguariensis.
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Catha edulis
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Or Khat is found in Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia, and Yemen. Its leaves are chewed socially to enhance well being and to enhance sociability. Its active compounds include cathine and cathinone. This acts as a MAO inhibitor.
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How can MAO inhibitors help treat depression?
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How does reserpine act as a norepinephrine antagonist?
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Reserpine acts on norepinephrine antagonist by disrupting vesicle transport that allows release of norepinephrine. Reserpine also blocks the release of dopamine and serotonin.
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What are examples of antimania tranquilizers and sedatives?
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This includes reserpine and deserpidine. They work by preventing release of norepinephrine and dopamine, which decreases the amount of neurotransmitter present.
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What the sources of exogenous scopalime? What is their mechanism of action?
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Sources include Atropa belladonna, Hyoscyamus niger, Datura spp., and Brugsmansia spp. Scopolamine acts by blocking muscarinic receptors in the brain. This may cause hallucinations in high doses.
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How is scopolamine related to motion sickness?
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Scopolamine can be used for motion sickness via a transdermal patch which blocks muscarinic receptors at the vestibular apparatus.
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Describe the GABA receptor. What happens when it is activated? What is the response when it is blocked?
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The GABA or γ – aminobutryric acid neurotransmitter is inhibitory and will act to make a person feel sedated or fatigued. This is where benzodiazepines and barbiturates act to act as sedatives and anti-seizure medication. GABA receptors are enhanced by gabitril from the betel nut and blocked by picrotoxin.
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Anamirta cocculus
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It is also known as fish-berry and Indian berry. It is used as a fish poison, parasiticide, insecticide, and is currently used today to treat head lice. It is also used therapeutically for barbiturate and benzodiazepine poisoning and a CNS stimulant via the active compound, picrotoxin, which acts as a GABA antagonist.
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Artemisia absinthum
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This is through the active compound, thujone, which is a GABA antagonist. Thujone is also a GABA antagonist and is used as a CNS stimulant.
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Areca catechu
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Betel nut contains the active compound, nipecotic acid. Nipecotic acid is too large to pass through the blood brain barrier, so gabitril, a smaller molecule was derived to help treat seizures.
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What plants may enhance the GABA system?
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Areca catechu with nipecotic acid and gabitil, as well as Valeriana officinalis, and piper methysticum.
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What plants act as sedatives or sleep enhancers?
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Piper methisticum (kava), Valeriana officinalis (valerian), Melissa officinalis (lemon balm), Humulus lupulus (hops), and Lavandula spp. (lavender).
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Describe the Pacific Island ethnobotany.
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Pacific islander ethnobotany was connected to sea faring exchange. Many plants were via boat introductions by the Polynesians, from Europeans, and from the Americas and Asian. Collectively, there are indigenous (native) plants, intentional human introduction, and unintentional human introduction.
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Piper methysticum
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Kava or kawa’s root is used as part of ceremonial beverages for cultural events. It reduces anxiety enhances sleep, and can soothe an irritable infant. It acts through lactones, kavalin and dihyrokavain that pass through the blood brain barrier to enhance GABA receptors.
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Describe ancient Greek medicine.
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Ancient Greek medicine was influenced by the Indians, Egyptians, Mesopotamians, Creteans, and Phoenecians. It was an integrative philosophy that focused on multiple elements and saw disease as a disconnection of those elements. There was detailed anatomy, atoms, medical writings, and a god of healing. There was also a focus on diagnosis and prognosis with diet as the main form of treatment.
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Valeriana officinalis
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Valerian is used as a sedative and to enhance sleep using veleporiates which increase GABA neurotransmitters.
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Melissa officinalis
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Lemon balm is used around the world to treat anxiety, insomnia, nervous disorders, and as a sedative. The leaves of lemon balm contain essential oils, monterpenes, sequiterpene, flavonoids, and phenylpropanoids.
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Humulus lupulus
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Hops are used in brewing beer and as a sedative.
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Lavandula angustifolia
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Lavender’s inflorescence and oils are used to enhance sleep, reduce anxiety, and as a relaxant.
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How is the emetic response triggered?
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The emetic or vomiting response is triggered by the chemoreceptor trigger zone in the medulla of the brainstem using dopamine and serotonin.
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Psychotria ipecacuanha
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Ipecacuanha, which is also known as ipecac, and brazil root, is used as an emetic, expectorant, and can remove intestinal amoebas. Its active compounds are emetine, cephaeline, and emetamine, which are all alkaloids. The chemical derivative is dihyroemetine. This acts to stimulate the chemoreceptor trigger of the medulla and is a direct irritant of the gastrointestinal tract causing vomiting.
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Describe Alzheimer’s and Alzheimer’s dementia.
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Alzheimer’s involves the death and disappearance of nerve cells, which is then replaced with plaques in the brain. It is thought that Alzheimer’s is a result of increased oxidation. Symptoms include memory loss, psychiatric disturbances like depression, delusions, and hallucinations, and the patient may eventually lose the ability to move, think, and speak.
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Describe the role of antioxidants and oxidants in affecting dementia.
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Oxidants cause damage to the body by combining with oxygen to steal electrons from major macromolecules. Antioxidants prevent the action of oxidants by sequestering them.
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What plants and substances can play a role in reducing cognitive loss?
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Ginkgo biloba, leafy green vegetables, blueberries, berries, caffeine, omega-3 fatty acids, folic acid, vitamin E, curcumin, cannabis sativa, and rivastigmine from Physostigmus vensosus.
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Ginkgo biloba
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Leaves are used to treat senility, recovery from stroke, enhancement of mental functioning, brain tonic, and enhance blood supply to whole body, and peripheral vascular disease. They contain ginkgolides, bilbalide, falvonoids, and terpenoids. These compounds enhance cerebral and general body circulation by using antioxidants to prevent the formation of lipid peroxides that lead to cell damage. It has modern medical uses through human clinical studies for Alzheimer’s disease, senility, recovery from stroke, enhancement of mental functioning in the elderly, and to treat peripheral vascular disease.
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Curcuma longa
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Curcumin also known as turmeric, is used for cooking, to treat infections, and to enhance brain functioning. It can be used therapeutically to reduce development of senility and to enhance cognitive functioning.
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Cannabis sativa for dementia
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In studies, cannabis was found to reduce memory loss and other symptoms of Alzheimer’s.
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Rivastigmine
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It is derived from the seed of physostigmus venosus and is taken as a pill or a skin patch. Rivastigmine will inhibit Acetylcholinesterase leading to more acetylcholine in the synapse.
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Cannabis sativa
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Cannabis sativa is also known as marijuana, and originated in Asia, but is now grown around the world in disturbed areas with open sunlight. The inflorescence and leaves are used. Marijuana has been used for thousands of years in Asia as an anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anticonvulsant, antidepressant, nausea, antiemetic, appetite stimulant, and more recently for glaucoma. Weed contains tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), as well as merino and dronabinol, along with nabilone. These compounds will stimulate receptors called CB1 and CB2. Today, it is used as an anti-nausea, antiemetic, appetite stimulant, analgesic, glaucoma, muscle relaxant, and anti-convulsant.
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CB1 and CB2
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CB1 is a central receptor and found in the brain cortex, hippcanthus, striatum, and cerebellum. In contrast, CB2 is a peripheral receptor. The endogenous compounds that stimulate the CB1 and CB2 receptors are ananndamide for CB1 and palmitylethanolamide for CB2.
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Theobroma cacao
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It contains three unsaturated N-acylethanolamine lipids, such as N-olcoyleethanolamine, N-linoleoylethanolamine, and anandamide.
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Action of chocolate as a canaboid mimics
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These compounds act by increasing anandamide levels and by activating cannabanoid receptors. N-olecoylethanolamine and N-linoleoylethanolamine inhibit anandamide hydrolysis allowing it to remain to stimulate the receptor.
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Papaver somniferum
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Opium is dried latex from immature fruit capsules and is used as an analgesic, inebriant, hypnotic, and for diarrhea and cough. Opium contains 20 alkaloids, codein, codeine sulfate, codeine phosphate, papaverine, thebaine, and narceine. Endogenous opiates that bind to the same receptors include endorphins, enkephalins, dynorphins, and beta-endorphins. Opium acts to inhibit the release of substance P to prevent pain and to activate other opiate receptors.
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Derivatives of Opium
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Derivatives include heroin from morphine, verapamil from papaverine, and naloxone from thebaine. Morphine is used as an analgesic. Codeine is used as an antitussive. Noscapine, a narcotic, is used at an antitussive. Papaverine can be used for impotence. Verapamil is a coronary artery vasodilator. Lastly, naloxone is used to treat morphine overdose.
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Hallucinogens
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Hallucinogens result from compounds that have similar structures to serotonin. This includes LSD, lysergol, LSD-25 psilocin, and compounds in morning glories. Hallucinogens can also come from tropane alkaloids that activate muscarinic receptors, such as members of the Solanaceae family, such as Atropa belladonna, Hyoscyamus niger, Mandragora officinalis, Datura species, and Brugsmansia species.
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Kappa opiod receptors
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The endogenous neurotransmitter is dynorphin. Some psychoactive plants that activate these receptors include salvinorin A from Salvia divinorum in Mexico, ibogaine from Tabernanthe iboga, and THC from Cannabis sativa.
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Public health in Incan medicine
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There was good public health through annual health ceremonies called Citua when families cleaned their homes. There were also bath and sewage systems, welfare for the elderly and crippled.
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Treatments in Incan medicine
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Treatments include surgeries for relieving cranial pressure and tumor excisions, biting ants to close wounds, amputations, and the use of botanical medicines.
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Mayan Documentation
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Mayans kept records of plant uses in codices and describe over twelve hundred plants.
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IAztec nfluences
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Cortez considered the Aztec physicians to be advance.
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Aztec Treatments
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The Aztecs had many botanical gardens rich in medical plants. They also used human hair as sutures in surgery.
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Aztec Documentation
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There was documentation of medical practice through clay tablets and included a legal code around medical practice. There were also descriptions of strokes, gonorrhea, fever, scabies, night blindness, renal stones, otitis media, and diseases of the lung, eyes, and liver.
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Aztec Treatments and public health
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They used plants, such as opium, mandrakes, hyoscyamus, and hellebore, for treatment, isolated individuals with contagious diseases, and focused on cleanliness. There was also sewage systems developed 4000 years ago.
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Ancient medical system of Egypt.
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Egypt also had accomplished doctors and written documentation of medical practice on papyrus. There are four major elements – earth, fire, water, and air.
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What was the importance of the Ebers Papyrus?
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The textbook written in 1550 B.C. describes how to examine patients, provide diagnosis, make a prognosis, and treat patients. It also described major diseases, like diabetes, rheumatism and helminthic infections. There are 876 prescriptions and 500 substances described. It also stated that liver was used for night blindness.
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Chinese Documentation
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Traditional Chinese medicine has a long history dating back to 2900 B.C. There was the documented philosophy of yin and yang by Fu-Shi, medical treatments and acupuncture by Shen-Nung, and Neiching by Huang-Li, which is a classic book on disease.
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Chinese medical Philosophy
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Chinese medicine focuses on 5 elements where disease is the result of disharmony among the elements. There are also the 2 principles of yin and yang. Disease is seen as disharmony of the fundamental organ.
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Chinese Diagnosis
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Diagnosis involves the pulse and the tongue.
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Chinese Treatment
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Treatment followed 1800 medicines as well as complex physiotherapy, such as acupuncture and moxibustion, and preliminary inoculations. There is also tai chi. Some of the medicines include ephedra, camphor, rhubarb, and cod liver oil.
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Chinese medicine today
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Today, Chinese medicine is still central and works complementary to modern medicine techniques through medical schools, hospitals, pharmacies, and human clinical studies.
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Ayurvedic Influences
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Ayurvedic medicine contributed to other ancient medical knowledge bases, such as Persia, the Arab world, Greece, Europe, Tibet, Indochina, and Indonesia due to its common point at the crossroads of major ancient empires.
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Ayurvedic Documentation
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Ayurvedic medicine is recorded in Vedic scripture and Sanskrit texts that included information on surgeries, doctor’s trainings, and a doctor’s oath. There was also documented medical ecology that saw seasonal diseases. There were also 66 different oral cavity diseases.
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Ayurvedic Philosophy
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It was centered on the vital force, six chakras, five basic principles, qualities, humors, and body elements. Disease is the results of the imbalance between humors and elements.
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Ayurvedic Diagnosis
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Diagnosis involved temperaments, body build, pulse, and urine analysis, which can be linked to modern genomic analysis. There was also use of astrology.
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Ayurvedic Treatment
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There many types of treatment, as well as surgery, hypnosis, and hot iron cauterization.
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Siddha medicine
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There are many texts, chakras, elements, humoral concepts, pulses, as well as urine analysis, similar to Ayurvedic medicine. There is the usage of salts, plants, materials, and metals.
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Chinese medicine today
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Today, Ayurvedic medicine is not as big as traditional Chinese medicine, but is still found in India, Europe, and parts of the US. Siddha medicine is smaller with two medical schools, one hundred hospitals, and 470 pharmacies.
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Influences of exchange in Pacific Island ethnobotany
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Pacific islander ethnobotany was connected to sea faring exchange. Many plants were via boat introductions by the Polynesians, from Europeans, and from the Americas and Asian.
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Types of plant introductions
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Collectively, there are the indigenous or native plants, plants with intentional human introduction, and unintentional human introduction.
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Greek Influences
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Ancient Greek medicine was influenced by the Indians, Egyptians, Mesopotamians, Creteans, and Phoenecians.
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Greek Documentation
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Documentation comes from Homer focusing on treatment of injuries during war, Alcmaeon who studied anatomy and described structures like the trachea, optic nerves, and blood vessels, Empedocles documented humors.
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Hippocrates
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Hippocrates wrote many texts that focus on medicine.
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Temple of Asclepias
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Ascelpias was the patron of the guild of physicians and his staff and holy snake are still used today by the American Medical Association. Knowledge about treatments could come by “incubation.”
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Greek Philosophy
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It was an integrative philosophy that focused on multiple elements and saw disease as an imbalance of those elements. There was detailed anatomy, atoms, medical writings, and a god of healing. There was also a focus on diagnosis and prognosis with diet as the main form of treatment.
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Greek Diagnosis and Prognosis
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Diagnosis was determined by inspection, palpitation, and smell.
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Greek Treatment
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Treatment was holistic in treating the patient and not the disease. It also involved the physician using nature to help facilitate healing. The focus was on diet, with supplementation of medicines, with surgery as the last resort. Surgery involved draining of empyemas and trepanations of the skull.
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Acetylcholine
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neurotransmitter for pre-ganglionic synapse of the sympathetic nervous system, pre and post ganglionic synapse of parasympathetic pathway, and the synapse of the somatic motor pathway, activates nicotinic and muscarinic receptors
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Acetylcholinesterase
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enzyme that breaks down Ach and decreases receptor stimulation
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Anticholinesterase
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the action of Ach’ase
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Cholinergic
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relating to Ach responding nerves
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Cholinomimentic
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has similar effects on the body as Ach
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Parasympathomimetic
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has similar actions to stimulating the parasympathetic nervous system
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Cholinergic Blockers
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block receptors that respond to Ach
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Adrenergic
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describes systems that respond to norepinephrine
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Epinephrine
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similar effects to norepinephrine
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Adrenomimetic
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compounds that have similar effects as norepinephrine and epinephrine
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Nicotinic effect
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respond to endogenous Ach and exogenous nicotine, and are blocked by D-tubocurarine, toxiferine, and botox
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Muscarinic effect
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responds to endogenous Ach and exogenous muscarine, pliocarpine, arecoline, and physostigmine
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Adrenergic effect
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stimulated by exogenous ephedrine or cocaine
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Cholinomimetic / Parasympathomimetic effect
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stimulated by muscarine, pilocarpine, and arecoline, and is inhibited by physostigmine
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