Humanities - Non-Fiction

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Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau were both

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Transcendentalist
(finding their spirituality in nature and the natural world.

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Nature

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Ralph Waldo Emerson

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Walden.

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Henry David Thoreau

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Transcendentalism impacted generations of American writers and artists, including

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-Nathanial Hawthorne
-Walt Whitman.

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Believing man to be the center of the universe can be described as a view of

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Humanism.

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Neoplatonism
founded by Plotinus around 300 A.D. and based upon the ideas of Plato.

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Disregarding the idea of separate, opposite realms of being (such as good and evil)
Plotinus instead mapped out a logical order to life beginning with The One, who provides the minds of every individual. Then there is the World Soul, connecting the intellectual with the material world of Earth. The dead were then thought to be reabsorbed into The One, and the process repeated (although not through reincarnation).

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Existentialism.

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focuses on the direct relationship between the individual and the universe and/or God.

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-Martin Heidegger
-Jean-Paul Sartre
-Søren Kierkegaard
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Well-known existentialists
Søren Kierkegaard as the father of existentialists

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The only true self-proclaimed existentialist in the group, there is no God and no absolute moral necessities of mankind—man is free to live his own life as he sees fit

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Jean-Paul Sartre

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Being and Time.

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Martin Heidegger
-German philosopher
-Considered a founding father of existentialism
-Edmund Husserl
-Heidegger ultimately rejected both associations
-Heidegger’s work led the way for the modern study of hermeneutics

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-Truth and Method
-Student of Martin Heidegger
-Considered by many to be the father of Hermeneutics.

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Hans-Georg Gadamer
-Gadamer largely argued that it is impossible to be unbiased in anything, and even historical accounts are forever biased by our own experiences

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Founded in second-century A.D., believed that Satan represented all things material, and God all things of light; each human being is a composite of matter (Satan) and godly light (God), and suffered not from sin, but from contact with matter.

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Manichaeism -
Founded by Mani, who believed himself a descendent of both Buddha and Plato

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The religion was divided into two classes—the elect, who were guaranteed a happy afterlife due to their lifetime of celibacy and religious teachings, and the auditors, who tended to the elect and hoped to be reborn as elect in the next life

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Manichaeism
-Manichaeism does not endorse the notion of personal sin—to followers, sin was a physical, tangible concept

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Five basic principles to Islam

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1-There is only one God, and Mohammed is the only mouthpiece of God
2.Five daily ritual prayers
3.Paying a religious tax
4.Fasting during sunlight during the month of Ramadan
5.Traveling to Mecca to reunify the nation of Islam

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Buddhists Four noble truths

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1.Existence is suffering
2.Suffering is caused by need
3.Suffering can cease, and 4. There is a path to the cessation of suffering.

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Buddhists follow five basic rules

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1.No Stealing,
2.No promiscuity
3.No lying
4.No drinking and
5.No killing

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The religious system of China for many years based on the practices of li and jen

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Confucianism
-it stressed healthy friendships (jen),
-and proper etiquette and manners when around others (li).

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Both describes the Chinese manner of thought, and a major Chinese religion.

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Taoism - Largely adopted from Buddhism,

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Incorporates many gods, the head of which is the Jade Emperor, with the Emperor of the Eastern Mountain serving as second-in-command.

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Taoism
It was developed to meet the emotional needs of the people that Confucianism was not addressing. With the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, Taoism was denounced, but many followers exist outside of China today.

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Father of Taoism
-Sixth century B.C. philosopher

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Lao Tzu - or 'Old Sage'

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Members of the highest caste in Hinduism

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Brahmans

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Warriors - in Hinduism

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Kshatriyas

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Farmers/Merchants in Hinduism

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Vaishyas

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Laborers in Hinduism

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Shudras

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-A German philosopher
-Born in 1844
-His work was later used by Nazi apologists as justification for their actions.

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Friedrich Nietzsche - 1844
-He was more of a moralist than a philosopher

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-Philosopher
-Phenomenology of Mind in 1807
-Philosophy of Right in 1821

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Georg W.F. Hegel
His work affirmed logic—-specifically, the logic of language—-as the foundation of the world.

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-German metaphysician
--Critique of Pure Reason in 1781
-Religion within the Limits of Reason Alone

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Immanuel Kant

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believed that reality extended only so far as an individual’s personal degree of “knowing,” and it is impossible to “know” things that one cannot experience firsthand. Therefore, intangibles such as God, freedom, and immortality cannot be known or proven
Immanuel Kant.

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Immanuel Kant
German metaphysician

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But human nature does not go backward, and we never return to the times of innocence and equality, when we have once departed from them.”

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Jean Jacques Rousseau
-French philosopher
-Believed that humanity was inherently good, but once corrupted by civilization, there was no turning back

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-I think, therefore I am.”
-The Cartesian plane is named after him
-Considered the founder of modern rationalism

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Rene Descartes
-Better known for his contributions to geometry than philosophy

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-Wrote Two Treatises on Government
-Influenced the writing of the Declaration of Independence
-An Essay Concerning Human Understanding to outline the principles of empiricism.(1690),

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John Locke

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-Wrote Leviathan
-Seventeenth-century British philosopher
--Argued for a strong, even brutal government in order to keep humanity from becoming savages.

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Thomas Hobbes
-Hobbes believed that human life on its own was “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.”

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a sect of hedonism (Pursuit of or devotion to pleasure) that believes that pleasure of the mind, not just the senses, is the ultimate good.

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Epicureans
(Thoroughly defended by Ancient Greek philosophers, the base of this belief system is that the goal of every action should be increased, long-term pleasure)

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-Alexander the Great’s tutor
-A student of Plato.

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Aristotle
(He disagreed with Plato that form and matter could be perceived as two separate things, and wrote such works as Rhetoric, Poetics, and Metaphysics)

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Radically unconventional group formed by Antisthenes in Greece in 400 A.D.

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Cynics
(This group considered virtue to be the only, not just the highest, good. They were largely self-sufficient, celibate (abstaining from sexual intercourse), and ascetic (renouncing material comforts and leading a life of austere self-discipline).

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Followers of the philosophy in Ancient Greece and Rome never showed joy or sadness

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Stoicism.
(Stoics believed that restraining emotion is the key to happiness. The majority of their beliefs are similar to the Cynics.)

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-Wrote Republic and Symposium
-Ancient Greek philosopher

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Plato
Plato is credited with being the most influential force on Western philosophy of all time. He taught the likes of Aristotle, and expressed his philosophical beliefs largely through fictional dialogues

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-Plato’s teacher
-declared that the gods had named him the wisest of all humanity, because he was the only one who knew how little he knew.

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Socrates
(later condemned to death by drinking poison hemlock by fellow Athenians for his alleged atheism)

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Anyone who trades liberty for security deserves neither liberty nor security

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Benjamin Franklin
-He wrote Poor Richard’s Almanack
-Was a signer of the Declaration of Independence.

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-Common Sense
-The Rights of Man

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Thomas Paine
In it, he called for the United States to immediately declare independence from England

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-The Rights of Man

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Thomas Paine
(Who fought in the French Revolution, wrote The Rights of Man in response to Edmund Burke’s criticisms.)

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-A member of the British Parliament
-Sympathized with the Americans during the Revolutionary War.
-He was firmly against the French Revolution

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Edmund Burke

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Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country.”

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John F. Kennedy
-President of the United States from 1961-1963
-He brought America out of the Cuban Missile Crisis, yet failed miserably with the Bay of Pigs invasion.