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157 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Functions of Respiratory System
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-Phonation (sound)
-Olfaction Provides extensive gas exchange surface area between air & circulating blood |
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Head & Neck Respiratory Components
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no serous membrane
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Thoracic Respiratory Components
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have serous membrane
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Respiratory Tract
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1)Conducting Portion: nasal cavity to terminal bronchioles
2)Respiratory Portion: respiratory bronchioles & alveoli |
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Alveoli
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air-filled pockets within lungs where all gas exchange occurs
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Nasal Cavity
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1)Nose
2)Nasal Hair 3)Nasal Septum 4)Paranasal Sinus 5)Nasal Conchae/ Turbinates 6)Nasopharynx |
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Nose
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-where air first enters respiratory tract
-enters through external nares into nasal vestibule |
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Nasal Hairs
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-in nasal vestibule
-acts as the first particle filtration system |
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Nasal Septum
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-divides nasal cavity into left and right regions
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Paranasal Sinus
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-secretes mucous which cleans & moistens nasal cavity
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Nasal Conchae (Turbinates)
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-superior
-middle -inferior |
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Nasopharynx
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-superior section of pharynx
-exclusively respiratory tract |
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-Eustachian Tubes
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-mucous membrane line epithelium
-connects pharynx to middle ear to adjust/equalize pressure in middle ear -also reason for ear infections (more often in children) |
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Pharyngeal Tonsils/ Adenoids
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-can block eustachian tube if they swell
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Respiratory Epithelium
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-pseudostratified columnar epithelium
-basal cells --> produce goblet cells & pseudostratified columnar cells -mucous cells |
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Repiratory Defense System
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-MALT --> more specifically BALT (Bronchial)
-Mucous Cells & Mucous glands -->produce mucus that bathes exposed surface -Cilia --> sweep debris trapped in mucus towards pharynx -Alveolar macrophages --> engulf small particles that reach lungs -Lamina Propria --> contains T-cells & B-cells |
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Olfactory Epithelium
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-Pseudostratified Columnar
-Bipolar (sensory) neurons --> bind various odorants which produce electrical changes to be sent to brain |
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Pharynx
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-Chamber shared by respiratory & digestive systems
-extends from internal nares to entrances to larynx & esophagus -divided into nasopharynx, oropharynx, & laryngopharynx |
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Nasophayrnx
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-most superior portion of pharynx
-contains pharyngeal tonsils and openings to left and right auditory tubes |
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Oropharynx
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-middle portion
-communicates with oral cavity |
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Laryngopharynx
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-inferior portion
-extends from hyoid bone to entrance of larynx & esophagus |
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Larynx
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-cartilaginous skeleton
-intrinsic & extrinsic muscle -mucousal lining (ie respiratory epithelium) -Hyaline Cartilage -epiglottis -vocal cords & ligaments |
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Epiglottis
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-elastic cartilage
-falls posteriorly to cover trachea |
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Vocal Folds
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-involved with the production of sounds
-called vocal cords |
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Vocal Folds & Ligaments
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used to close off trachea & produce sound
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Trachea
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-most of trachea lies in posterior mediastinum, but anterior to esophagus
-Transports air to alveoli -remains open or patent at all times -multilayered --> pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium & cartilage -As you move distally, amount of cartilage goes down & smooth muscle increases |
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Ciliary Escalator
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-moves mucous towards pharynx --> usually swallowed
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Bronchial Tree
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-Trachea --> Primary Bronchus --> Secondary Bronchus (2-3) --> Tertiary Bronchus (9-10) --> Bronchioles --> Terminal Bronchioles --> Respiratory Bronchioles
-Controlled neurally & hormonally --> muscle |
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Alveoli
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-extensively vascularized
-walls --> simple squamous cells --> type I pneumocyte |
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Respiratory Membrane
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1)squamous epithelium lining alveolli
2)endothelial cells lining adjacent capillary 3)fused basal lamina between alveolar and endothelial cells |
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Type I Pneumocytes
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-squamous epithelium
-thin & delicate |
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Type II Pneumocytes
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-scattered among squamous cells
-produce surfactant -cuboidal |
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Surfactant
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-oily secretion containing phospholipids & protein
-inserts itself between water molecules to reduce surface tension in alveoli -secreted over alveolar air space - |
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Respiratory Distress Syndrome
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-person does not produce enough surfactant becomes exhausted by effort required to inflated and deflate lungs
-seen in infants |
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Alveolar Macrophages (Dust Cells)
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-derived from monocytes
-patrol the epithelial surface, phagocytizing any particulate matter that reaches alvelolar surface |
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Left Lung
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Superior & Inferior lobes separated by oblique fissure
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Right Lung
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-Superior, Middle, & Inferior Lobes
-Separated by horizontal & oblique fissures |
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Apex of Lung
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extends above clavicle
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Primary Bronchus
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-aka extrapulmonary bronchi
-outside lungs |
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Secondary Bronchus
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-aka lobar bronchi
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Tertiary Bronchus
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-aka segmental bronchi
-goes to specific sections of lung called Broncho-pulmonary segments |
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Blood Supply to Respiratory Portion of Resp. System
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-each lobule receives an arteriole & a venule
-Respiratory exchange surfaces receive blood --> From arteries of pulmonary circuit |
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Blood Supply to the Conducting Portion of Resp. System
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-Capillaries supplied by bronchial arteries --> provide oxygen and nutrients to tissues of conducting passageways of lungs
-Venous blood bypasses the systemic circuit and flows into pulmonary veins |
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Lungs Have Pleural Membranes
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-parietal pleura
-pleural space -visceral pleura |
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Ventilation
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mechanical process of getting air into & out of lungs
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External Respiration
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Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between air & blood
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Internal Respiration
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Exchange between blood & tissues of body (diffusive)
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Cellular Respiration
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-cells use gases to maintain own respiration
-said to drive entire respiration process |
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Pulmonary Ventilation
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-physical movement of air in and out of the respiratory tract
-air moves in & out of lungs by bulk flow -pressure gradient drives flow --> air moves from high pressure to low pressure |
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Inspiration
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-pressure in lungs is less than atmosphere
-air moves into lungs |
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Expiration
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-pressure in lungs is greater than atmosphere
-air move out of lungs |
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Boyle's Law
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-defines relationship between gas pressure & volume
P = 1/V |
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In a contained gas
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-external pressure forces molecules closer together
-movement of gas molecules put pressure on container |
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Pulmonary Pressures
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-atmospheric pressure
-intrapulmonary pressure (intra-alveolar pressure) --> inside lungs -intrathoracic pressure (intrapleural pressure) --> inside pleural space |
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Atmospheric Pressure
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-760 mm Hg at sea level
-decreases as altitude increases -increases under water -other lung pressure given in comparison to atmospheric |
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Intra-Alveolar Pressure
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-Pressure of air in alveoli
-Given relative to atmospheric pressure V-aries with phase of respiration -During inspiration = negative (less than atmospheric) -During expiration = positive (more than atmospheric) -Difference between Palv and Patm drives ventilation |
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Intra-pleural Pressure
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-Pressure inside pleural sac -->
Always negative under normal conditions & Always less than Palv -Varies with phase of respiration --> At rest, -3 or 4 mm Hg |
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Transmural Pressure Gradient
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-Lungs are forced to comply with the size of the thoracic cavity.
-Review Graphic & Pressures on Pleural Cavity |
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Pneumothorax
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-collapsed lung caused when pressure gradients are eliminated by piercing into the lungs
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Inspiratory Muscles
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-increase volume of thoracic cavity
-Diaphragm -External Intercostals |
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Expiratory Muscles
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-decrease volume of thoracis cavity
-expiration is completely passive (muscles relax) -Internal Intercostals -Abdominal muscles |
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Accesory Muscles of Respiration
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-scalenes
-pectoralis minor |
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Active Exhalation
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-requires forced contractions of internal intercostals, rectus abdominus, & other abdominal muscles
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Quiet Breathing
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-Eupnea
-active inhalation & passive exhalation -Diaphragmatic Breathing --> dominated by diaphragm -Costal Breathing --> dominated by movement of ribcage |
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Forced Breathing
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-Hyperpnea
-Involves active inhalation and exhalation -Assisted by accessory muscles |
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Minute Respiratory Volume
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-MRV = Total volume of air entering and leaving respiratory system each minute
-Minute ventilation = VT x RR -Normal respiration rate = 12 breaths/min -Normal VT = 500 mL (normal tidal volume) -Normal minute ventilation = 500 mL x 12 breaths/min = 6000 mL/min |
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Alveolar Ventiliation Rate
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-AVR = Volume of air reaching the gas exchange areas per minute
-Alveolar ventilation rate (AVR) = (VT x RR) – (DSV x RR) -Normal = 4200 mL/min (500 mL/br x 12 br/min) – (150 mL/br X 12 br/min) |
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Anatomical Dead Space
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-Air in conducting zone that does not participate in gas exchange
-Thus, conducting zone = anatomical dead space -Dead space = approximately 150 mL |
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Concentration & Partial Pressure
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-The concentration of a gas in a mixture can be measured by its partial pressure
-Partial pressure of a gas = proportion of pressure of entire gas that is due to presence of the individual gas i.e. -Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3 + … Pn -Partial pressure of a gas depends on --> Fractional concentration of the gas -Total pressure of gas mixture Pn = %n x Ptotal |
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Composition of Air
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-79% Nitrogen
-21% Oxygen -Trace amounts carbon dioxide, helium, argon, etc. -Water can be a factor depending on humidity |
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Partial Pressure of Air
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-PN2 = 0.79 x 760 mm Hg = 600 mm Hg
-PO2 = 0.21 x 760 mm Hg = 160 mm Hg -Air is only 0.03% carbon dioxide -PCO2 = 0.0003 x 760 mm Hg = 0.23 mm Hg |
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Solubility
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-gas molecules exist in gas form or dissolved in liquid
-ability to dissolve depends on properties of liquid & gas -At 100 mm Hg partial pressure in water [O2] in water = 0.15 mmoles/liter [CO2] in water = 3.0 mmoles/liter -Carbon dioxide is more soluble than oxygen in water (and blood). |
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Diffusion of Gases
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-High --> low pressure
-diffuse down partial pressure gradients (high --> low) -a particular gas diffuses down its own partial pressure gradient (presence of other gases in irrelevant) |
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Inspired air mixes with...
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-unoxygenated blood from conducting pathways
-lowers PO2 of blood entering system circuit (drops to 85-100 mm Hg) -Raises PCO2 of blood entering systemic circuit (raises to 40 mm Hg) |
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Diffusion between alveoli & blood is rapid due to...
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-Small diffusion barrier
-Large surface area -Exchange rapidly reaches equilibrium |
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Transport of Gases in Blood
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-Oxygen not very soluble in plasma
-Thus only 3.0 mL/200 ml arterial blood oxygen dissolved in plasma (1.5%) -Other 197 mL arterial blood oxygen transported by hemoglobin Hb + O2 <--> Hb*O2 Hb = deoxyhemoglobin Hb*O2 = oxyhemoglobin |
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Hemoglobin
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-can bind up to 4 oxygen molecules
-follows law of mass reaction --> more oxygen = more binds to hemoglobin -Non-linear relationship (positive or allosteric cooperativity) |
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Hemoglobin Saturation
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-measure of how much oxygen is bound to hemoglobin (100% saturation = all four binding sites on hemoglobin have oxygen bound to them)
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Hemoglobin Saturation Curve - Shift Right
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-Less loading of O2
-More unloading of O2 -Equilibrium shifts left |
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Hemoglobin Saturation Curve - Shift Left
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-More loading of O2
-Less unloading of O2 -Equilibrium Shifts Right |
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High Temp on Hemoglobin Saturation
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-Active tissues
-Shift right -More O2 unloading in tissues -More O2 delivery to tissues |
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Bohr Effect
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-Lower pH increases O2 unloading
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Active Tissues
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-produce more acid --> pH decreases in tissue --> saturation curve shifts right --> more O2 unloading
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Carbon Dioxide Transport
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-Dissolved in blood plasma
-Dissolved in blood plasma as bicarbonate -Bound to globin portion of Hb Hb + CO2 <--> Hb*CO2 (carbaminohemoglobin) |
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Bicarbonate
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forms one of the major buffers in blood
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Respiratory Centers
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-Three pairs of nuclei in the reticular formation of medulla oblongata & pons
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Respiratory Rhythmicity Centers of the Medulla Oblongata
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-Set the pace of respiration
-Can be divided into two groups --> Dorsal respiratory group (DRG) & Ventral respiratory group (VRG) |
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The Apneustic and Pneumotaxic Centers of the Pons
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-Paired nuclei that adjust output of respiratory rhythmicity centers
-Regulating respiratory rate and depth of respiration |
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Respiratory Centers & Reflex Controls
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-interactions between DRG & VRG --> establish basic pace & depth of respiration
-the pneumatic center --> modifies pace |
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DRG
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-Dorsal Respiratory Group
-inspiratory center -functions in quiet & forced breathing |
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VRG
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-Ventral Respiratory Group
-inspiratory & expiratory center -functions only in forced breathing |
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Respiratory Muscle
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-skeletal muscle
-controlled by somatic motor neurons |
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Inpiration Innervation
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-Phrenic nerve --> diaphragm
-External intercostal nerve --> external intercostal muscles (Somatic motor neurons) |
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Expiration Innervation
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-Internal intercostal nerve --> internal intercostal muscles
(Somatic motor neurons) |
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Quiet Breathing
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-Brief activity in DRG --> stimulates inspiratory muscles
-DRG neurons become inactive --> allow for passive exhalation |
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Forced Breathing
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-Increased activity of DRG --> stimulates VRG & activates accessory inspiratory muscles
-After inhalation --> expiratory center neurons stimulate active exhalation |
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Central Pattern Generator
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-Establishes repiratory cycle
-location & mechanism of action unknown (somewhere in medulla) |
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Herring-Breuer Reflex
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1)inflation reflex --> prevents overexpansion of lungs during forced breathing
2) deflation relfex --> inhibits expiratory centers and stimulates inspiratory centers when lungs are deflating (both not involved with normal quiet breathing) |
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Central & Peripheral Chemoreceptors
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detect levels of O2 and CO2 in blood
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Respiratory Reflexes
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-Chemoreceptors detect blood levels of O2, CO2, and pH
-peripheral chemoreceptors --> carotid/aortic bodies -central chemoreceptors --> medulla oblongata (20% detected peripherally & 80% detected centrally) |
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Peripheral Chemoreceptors
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Resp Centers influenced by input from:
-The glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX) --> From carotid bodies --> Stimulated by changes in blood pH, CO2 & PO2 -The vagus nerve (X) --> From aortic bodies --> Stimulated by changes in blood pH, CO2 or PO2 |
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Central Chemoreceptors
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-Respiratory centers are directly and strongly influenced by the composition of the blood and the CSF
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Hypoxic Drive
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-increase in respiration caused by low O2
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Central Receptors
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-Located ventral surface of medulla
-Respond to changes in pH of the CSF -Responds indirectly to CO2 via pH of CSF --> Increased CO2 decreases pH -Not responsive to changes in [O2] or blood pH |
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Hypoventilation & Hyperventilation Negative Feedback Loops
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-Rise in CO2 in blood due to reduced ventilation --> Hypercapnia
-Low concentration of CO2 in blood due to increased ventilation --> Hypocapnia |
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Relationship Between Arterioles & Bronchioles
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-arterioles & bronchioles are always doing opposite thing in response to same stimulus
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Local ventilation and perfusion are regulated to match
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-Ventilation = rate of air flow
-Perfusion = rate of blood flow VA/Q = Ventilation-perfusion ratio Va/Q = 1 (ideal) Va/Q < 1 (decreased ventilation) Va/Q > 1 (decreased perfusion) |
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CO2 increases, O2 decreases
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heart rate increases, ventilation increases
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If ventilation to certain alveoli decreases
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-Increased PCO2 + decreased PO2
-Increased PCO2 in bronchioles --> bronchodilation -Decrease PO2 in arterioles --> vasocontriction |
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If perfusion to certain alveoli decreases
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-Increased PO2 + decreased PCO2
-Increased PO2 in arterioles --> vasodilation -Decreased PCO2 in bronchioles --> bronchoconstriction Review Slide 96 of Resp. |
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Gastrointestinal System
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-continuous tube with lumen that is technically outside the body
-alimentary tract/ alimentary canal/ gastrointestinal system proper -assisted by accessory exocrine glands (have ducts) |
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Path of Alimentary Canal
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Mouth (buccal cavity) --> esophagus --> stomach --> small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum) --> large intestine (colon) --> rectum (distal portion of colon) --> anus
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Sphincter
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-smooth muscle bands that close off certain regions
1) upper esophageal sphincter 2) cardiac sphincter (lower esophageal sphincter) 3) pyloric sphincter 4) ileocecal sphincter 5) internal & external anal sphincters |
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Upper Esophageal Sphincter
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physiological sphincter --> not really there structurally, but due to function of skeletal muscle in area
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4 Basic Digestive Processes
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1) Secretion
2) Motility 3) Digestion 4) Absorption |
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4 Major Layers of GI Wall
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1) Mucosa --> lines lumen
-mucous membrane -lamina propria (connective tissue) -muscularis mucosae (thin layer of smooth m.) 2) Submucosa --> dense CT 3) Muscularis Externa --> smooth m. -circular layer -longitudinal layer 4) Adventitia or Serosa -Adventitia in esophagus & small portion of rectum -Serosa in all other places |
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Esophagus Epithelium
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-non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
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Epithelium of Alimentary Canal (except esophagus)
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-simple columnar epithelium (enterocytes)
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Special Features of GI Tract
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-Goblet Cells --> mucous secreting cells
-microvilli/ brush border -enteroendocrine cells (everywhere in GI tract from stomach on) --> release granules when stimulated by local factors --> granules affect locally & globally |
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Gastrointestinal Associated Lymphoid Tissue (GALT)
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-Lymphatic tissue contained in lamina propria
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Mucosal Glands
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-in lamina propria
-regulated by enteroendocrine secretions |
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Submucosa
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-blood vessels & lymphatics
-submucosal glands |
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Intramural Ganglion
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-between submucosa & muscularis externa (submucosa plexus)
-has nerve cell bodies -postganglionic parasympathetic nerve bodies |
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Muscularis Externa
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-responsible for all motility in GI tract
-maintains constant degree of contraction (tonic contraction) -has pacemaker activity --> in motion at all times -have gap junctions -peristalsis -segmentation |
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Peristalsis
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-traveling waves which propel whatever is in lumen
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Segmentation
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-mixing movement
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Myenteric/ Auerbach's Plexus
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-under control of brain stem
-show large degree of autonomy for local control or motility & secretion |
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Enteric Nervous System
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-subdivision of the Peripheral Nervous System, that directly controls the gastrointestinal system
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Intraperitoneal vs. Retroperitoneal
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-peritoneal folds suspend most internal organs (ex. mesentery)
-intraperitoneal -> in fold, inside cavity -retroperitoneal --> outside cavity lining (pancreas, portion of colon) |
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Serosa
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-"capped off" by mesothelium
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Carbohydrates, fats, & proteins broken down into absorptive units
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-monosaccharides, amino acids, and monoglycerides
-carbs & protein go into blood -lipids absorbed into lymphatic capillaries through lacteals in microvilli |
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Oral Cavity
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-mechanical event
-chewing (mastication) |
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Waldeyer's Ring
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-ring of tonsils (diffuse lymphatic tissue) protects upper GI tract
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Salivary Glands
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-Partotid, Sublingual, Submandibular --> ascinar glands
-mucous glands --> secrete mucous --> lubricant, IgA, enzymes (amylase) -serous glands --> secrete protein rich fluid |
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Salivary Amylase
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-breaks down polysaccharides
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Saliva
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-produced all the time; can be increased or decreased
-controlled neurally --> primarily by parasympathetic stimulation -Parasympathetic (increased) --> more saliva -Parasympathetic (decreased) --> less saliva -CN VII (facial) & CN IX (glossopharyngeal) --> salivary glands |
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General Sensation in Mouth
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-CN V
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Taste (efference)
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-CN VII (Facial) --> anterior 1/3 of tongue
-CN IX (glossopharyngeal) --> posterior tongue & throat |
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Trachea & Esophagus
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-tongue pushes food towards back of throat
-epiglottis covers trachea |
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Degultination
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-voluntary --> tongue pushes food towards back of throat --> activates deglutonation center in brain
-involuntary (pharyngeal stage) 1) breathing stops & airway is closed off 2) soft palate & uvula are lifted to close off nasopharynx 3) vocal cords close off 4) epiglottis is bent over airway as larynx is lifted |
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Deglutination Apnea
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-stopping of breathing while swallowing
-normal |
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Upper & lower esophageal sphincters not open at the same time
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-except when vomiting
-prevents air from entering stomach -upper sphincter relaxes when larynx is lifted, then closes behind bolus |
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Gastroesophageal Junction
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-where epithelium changes from stratified squamous epithelium to simple columnar
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Stomach Regions
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-Cardiac, Fundus, Body, & Pyloric regions
-gastric pits --> increase surface area; secrete gastric juices |
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Fundic Glands
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-Parietal Cells
-Gastric Intrinsic Factor -Chief Cells |
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Parietal Cells
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-produce HCl
-alkaline tide --> blood coming back from stomach is basic |
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Gastric Intrinsic Factor
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-transporter that makes it possible to absorb vitamin B12
-pernicious anemia --> can't absorb B12 |
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Chief Cells (Zymogenic Cells)
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-produce precursor called pesinogen --> activated by HCl --> forms pepsin --> digests proteins
-autocatalysis --> pepsin made assists in activation of pepsinogen |
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Gastric Muscularis Externa
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-increases motility
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Stomach stores food...
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-until small intestine can process it
-stomach relaxes to store more food |
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Secretions in stomach all increase or decrease at same time
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very local regulation
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Control of GI Secretion & Motility
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1) Cephalic Phase (stimulatory)
2) Gastric Phase (stimulatory) 3) Intestinal Phase (inhibitory) |
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Cephalic Phase
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-stimulatory
-preparatory phase -higher brain centers --> thinking, talking, etc. about food preps stomach -parasympathetic stimulation over Vagus Nerve -G cells produce gastrin & increase overall secretions |
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Gastric Phase
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-stimulatory
-begins with arrival of food in stomach -lasts as long as food is in stomach -locally amplifies cephalic phase --> increased secretions -increased peristalsis --> mixing & movement -both sphincters closed -histamine released enteroendocrine cells--> increased acid & secretions -blocking histamine receptors in stomach reduces heart burn -enterogastric reflex --> hormonal reflex to stop secretions |
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Intestinal Phase
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-inhibitory
-enterogastric reflex -CCK, GIP, & Secretin produced in response to partially digested food in small intestine --> feedback to stomach to stop secretions & motility in stomach |
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Gastric Inhibitory Peptide
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-stimulates insulin release from endocrine pancreas
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Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide
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-stimulates intestinal secretions by intestinal glands --> protects from acid
-dilates regional capillaries -inhibits acid production in stomach |
