Human Structure & Function Ii - Exam Ii

Front 1

Cardiodynamics

Back 1

refers to the movements and forces generated during cardiac contractions

Front 2

End-Diastolic Volume

Back 2

-the amount of blood in each ventricle at the end of ventricular diastole
-potential blood to be ejected

Front 3

End-Systolic Volume

Back 3

-the amount of blood remaining in each ventricle at the end of ventricular systole
-blood remaining after ejection

Front 4

Stoke Volume

Back 4

-the amount of blood pumped out of each ventricle during a single beat

SV = EDV - ESV

Front 5

Ejection Fraction

Back 5

the percentage of the EDV represented by the SV

Front 6

Cardiac Output

Back 6

-the amount of blood pumped by the left ventricle in one minute
-actual work done by heart
-measured in mL/min

CO = HR x SV

Front 7

Cardiac Muscle

Back 7

controlled neurally and hormonally

Front 8

Dual Innervation of Heart

Back 8

-receives efferent signals from sympathetic & parasympathetic nerves
-Parasympathetic --> Vagus Nerve --> restricted towards base of heart innervating SA & AV nodes
-Sympathetic --> Thoracic Splanchnic Nerves --> innervates most of heart

Front 9

Chronotropic

Back 9

-increase or decrease in heart rate
-Parasympathetic = negative effect (decrease)
-Sympathetic (and epinephrine) = positive effect (increase)

Front 10

Inotropic

Back 10

-increase or decrease in strength of contraction (Review Slide)

Front 11

Dromotropic

Back 11

-increase or decrease in rate of action potential

Front 12

Increasing heart rate takes time away from what?

Back 12

-increased heart rate takes time away from diastolic ventricular filling
-around 210 bpm is the maximum rate without compromising CO

Front 13

Parasympathetic Stimulation

Back 13

-Controls rate during resting periods
-increase in parasympathetic activity = decrease in heart rate
-Parasympathetic neurons release ACh which opens K+ channels & slows depolarization
-hyperpolarization --> takes longer to reach threshold

Front 14

Sympathetic Stimulation

Back 14

-Controls heart rate during times of activity
-increase in sympathetic activity = increase in heart rate
-Sympathetic neurons release NE which bind to beta receptors & open Sodium-Calcium ion channels increasing the rate of depolarization

Front 15

Atrial Reflex

Back 15

-involves adjustments in heart rate in response to and increase in venous return
-walls of atria are stretched = increase in heart reate

Front 16

Preload

Back 16

-degree of stretching experienced by ventricular muscle cells during ventricular diastole
-directly proportional to the EDV

Front 17

Three Factors That Influence ESV

Back 17

1)preload
2)contractility (force produced during contration)
3)afterload

Front 18

Afterload

Back 18

-the amount of tension the contracting ventricle must produce to force open the semilunar valve and eject blood
-what heart has to work against in vasculature

Front 19

Arteries

Back 19

-thick walled conducting vessels

Front 20

Capillaries

Back 20

-exchanging vessels
-adequate perfusion depends on how much blood is in capillaries
-only have simple squamous epithelium
-there is a concentration gradient & small distance for exchange

Front 21

Veins

Back 21

-thin walled capacitance vessels
-contain a lot of the bodies blood because they tend to let blood pool rather than push in along like arteries

Front 22

Artery to Capillary

Back 22

-divergence
-smaller vessels, but many more = greater area

Front 23

Capillaries to Veins

Back 23

-convergence
-larger vessels, but fewer = lower area

Front 24

In what vessels is the flow rate lowest?

Back 24

-capillaries --> have highest rate of diffusion

Front 25

Tunica Intima

Back 25

-simple squamous epithelium
-continuous with lining of heart

Front 26

Tunica Media

Back 26

-circular smooth muscle

Front 27

Tunica Externa

Back 27

-connective tissue sheath

Front 28

Elastic Artery

Back 28

-Aorta and its initial branches have elastin layers around smooth muscle
-ventricle contracts --> aorta expands --> aorta passively recoils, --> elastic recoil keeps blood flowing during ventricular diastole

Front 29

Muscular Artery

Back 29

-typical artery
-pure conducting vessel
-flow determined by pressure & resistance

Front 30

Blood Flow

Back 30

-same thing as CO

Flow = change in pressure / resistance

-increase in pressure = increase in flow

Front 31

Arterioles

Back 31

-last branch that has smooth muscle before capillaries
-smooth muscle in arterioles = strongly contractile
-Arterioles have smooth muscle tone --> sympathetic input controls diameter of lumen

Front 32

Vasoconstriciton

Back 32

-when arterial smooth muscle contracts, thereby constricting artery

Front 33

Vasodilation

Back 33

-relaxation of arterial smooth muscle, which increases diameter of lumen
-drop in frequency of sympathetic stimulation below that of normal muscle tone

Front 34

Resistance

Back 34

-high resistance = low flow
-low resistance = high flow

Front 35

Viscosity

Back 35

-thickness of a fluid
-high viscosity = low flow
-low viscosity = high flow

Front 36

Review Relationships

Back 36

Pg. 732 Table 21-1

Front 37

Radius of vessels on blood flow

Back 37

Resistance = 1/r^4
Flow = r^4

Front 38

Cardiac Plexus

Back 38

-the sympathetic & parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system innervate the heart by means of the Cardiac Plexus

Front 39

Cardiac Centers

Back 39

-Cardiac Center of the medulla oblongata contain the autonomic headquarters for cardiac control

Front 40

Circulating hormones such as Epinephrine, Norepinephrine, and Thryoid Hormone (T3) have what effect on heart rate?

Back 40

increase heart rate

Front 41

Cardiac Reserve

Back 41

difference between resting and maximal cardiac outputs

Front 42

Continuous Capillaries

Back 42

-complete endothelial lining
-complete basement membrane
-least permeable

Front 43

Fenestrated Capillaries

Back 43

-have pores that penetrate the endothelial lining
-have a complete basement membrane
-permit rapid exchange of water and solutes
-most numerous

Front 44

Sinusoidal Capillaries

Back 44

-also has fenestrated endothelial lining
-incomplete basement membrane
-found in spleen, liver, & red bone marrow
-most permeable
-allows for exchange of solutes as large as plasma proteins

Front 45

Capillary Bed

Back 45

-aka Capillary Plexus
-functioning network of interconnected capillaries

Front 46

Transport Across Capillary Wall

Back 46

-oxygen/carbon dioxide
-small, water soluble substances pass through pores
-lipid soluble substances pass through endothelial cells
-plasma proteins & blood substances (ex. platelets) can not pass through

Front 47

Precapillary Sphincters

Back 47

control diameter of entrance to each capillary

Front 48

Capillary Filtration

Back 48

-movement of water across capillary do to pressure
-blood pressure is the driving force
-water outside has Interstitial Fluid Hydrostatic Pressure

Front 49

Blood Pressure

Back 49

-aka Blood Hydrostatic Pressure
-refers to arterial pressure

Front 50

Starling Forces

Back 50

-Blood Hydrostatic Pressure
-Interstitial Fluid Hydrostatic Pressure
-Blood Osmotic Pressure
-Interstitial Fluid Osmotic Pressure

Front 51

NDF =

Back 51

NDF = (Pc - Pt) - o(Pic -Pit)

Pc-->capillary hydrostatic pressure
Pt-->tissue hydrostatic pressure
o-->
Pic-->capillary plasma oncotic pressure
Pit-->tissue fluid oncotic pressure

Front 52

Review Capillary Filtration

Back 52

2-12-09 Notes

Front 53

Capillary Filtration (net movement)

Back 53

-net movement is always outward
-3L of water lost from capillary filtration --> absorbed by Lymphatic Capillaries

Front 54

Lymphatic Capillaries

Back 54

-thin walled
-no basement membrane
-1 way transport from tissue to venous circulation ending at heart
-fluid in lymphatic system is called lymph

Front 55

High endothelial venule / Postcapillary venule

Back 55

-cuboidal
-specialized for diapedesis of leukocytes
-sensitive to histamine

Front 56

Vein Sizes

Back 56

-venules --> medium veins --> large veins (vena cava) --> heart

C = change in V/ change in P

C--> compliance

Front 57

Central Venous Pressure

Back 57

-increases to increase venous return

Front 58

Factors influencing Venous Return & Central Venous Pressure

Back 58

-valves in veins
-skeletal muscle pump
-respiratory pump
-venomotor tone
-blood volume

Front 59

Skeletal Muscle Pump

Back 59

-squeezes on veins increasing pressure when muscles contract
-this moves blood towards the heart
-muscles relax --> blood flows into veins between muscle

Front 60

Respiratory Pump

Back 60

-inspiration --> decreases pressure in thoracic cavity & increases pressure in abdominal cavity
-Greater pressure on veins in abdominal cavity --> move blood towards heart

Front 61

Review Slide of Starling's Law of the Heart & Intrinsic vs. extrinsic control of contractility

Back 61

-Heart III Slides
-Extrinsic effects Intrinsic

Front 62

Blood Volume

Back 62

-Increase in Blood Volume --> Increase in Venous Pressure
-Decrease in BV --> Decrease in VP
-long term regulation of blood pressure occurs through regulation of blood volume

Front 63

Flow Equation

Back 63

F = ΔP/R

F = volume/time = CO -->
CO = ΔP/R -->
CO = MAP/R where R α (η . L)/r^4

Front 64

MAP

Back 64

Mean Arterial Pressure
ΔP = MAP
MAP = DP + (SP – DP)/3

Front 65

Total Peripheral Resistance

Back 65

-when the viscosity of the blood and the length of the vascular tree are constants, R is most related to the degree of vasoconstriction or vasodilation of all the arterioles in the body, or the total peripheral resistance = TPR
-left ventricle can pump same volume of blood as right ventricle with lower pressure because TPR in lungs is lower

Front 66

Cardiac Output =

Back 66

CO = MAP/TPR -->
MAP = CO x TPR

Front 67

Mean Arteriole Pressure (regulation)

Back 67

-regulated by cardiac reflexes, which have both neural & hormonal components
-MAP allows for adequate perfusion

Front 68

Cardiac Reflexes

Back 68

global --> effects total body blood pressure

Front 69

Autoregulation

Back 69

-local regulation of BP
-there is always perfusion to brain, heart, & kidneys

Front 70

Hyperemia

Back 70

refers to blood flow to skin

Front 71

Increased MAP countered by...

Back 71

mechanisms that decrease pressure (and vice versa)

Front 72

Sensory Input to Cardiovascular Control Center (CCC)

Back 72

-Baroreceptors
-Chemoreceptors
-Mechanoreceptors/Proprioceptors

Front 73

Baroreceptors

Back 73

-most important
-detects BP (stretch)
-in walls of aorta & vena cava

Front 74

Chemoreceptors

Back 74

-detect levels of Carbon Dioxide/ decrease in pH
-in aorta & carotid artery

Front 75

Mechanoreceptors/ Propioceptors

Back 75

-detect activity/movement
-in tendons & joints
-associated with exercise

Front 76

Baroreceptor Reflex

Back 76

-Aortic Bodies sense stretch --> Vagus Nerve (CN X) carries signal
-Carotid Bodies sense stretch --> Glossopharyngeal Nerve (CN IX) carries signal
-Visceral afferent fibers lie in dorsal root ganglia or in the sensory ganglia associated with cranial nerves (VII, IX, X). Their somae lie in the nodose ganglion and project via the vagus to the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS).
-The solitary nucleus and tract are structures in the brainstem (medulla and pons) that carry and receive visceral sensation from the facial (VII), glossopharyngeal (IX) and vagus (X) as well as from ascending spinal tracts
-Receives primary afferent neurons related to cardiovascular, respiratory and gastrointestinal functions
- These first central neurons within the solitary nucleus can participate in autonomic reflexes that may be as simple as two central neurons with the second neuron being an efferent or motor neuron that projects back directly to the organ such as the heart forming some of the simplest reflex pathways in the brain.

Front 77

Cardiac Control Center

Back 77

–cardioacceleratory center (CA) --> sympathetic
–cardioinhibitory center (CI) --> parasympathetic
–vasomotor center (VMC) --> sympathetic

Front 78

Adrenergic

Back 78

-NE from sympathetic neurons or Epinephrine from renal medulla
-sympathetic

Front 79

Cholinergic

Back 79

-Ach
-sympathetic

Front 80

Nitrooxynergic

Back 80

-directly promotes NO as vasodilator
-sympathetic

Front 81

Sympathetic stimulation of heart & arterioles -->

Back 81

-also causes sympathetic stimulation of veins -->
-increases returning volume to heart -->
-increase heart rate & stroke volume

Front 82

Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System

Back 82

-effects are 5x stronger than sympathetic
-hormonal effect

Front 83

Review Reflex Arcs of Various Disturbances in circulation

Back 83

Heart III slides

Front 84

Juxtaglomerular Apparatus

Back 84

-source of renin
-macula densa --> sensory component of system

Front 85

CCC & R-A-A systems

Back 85

short term responses

Front 86

Long term response to increase/decrease in blood pressure

Back 86

-effects composition of blood
-activation/deactivation of erythropoetin

Front 87

Natriuretic Peptide

Back 87

-released by cells in the right atrium in response to increase in blood pressure & volume
-act to reduce BP
-Diuretic
-Fluid Shift mechanism --> can be as large as 2-3 L

Front 88

Lymph Flow

Back 88

The lymph flow is slow because there is no pump (like the heart) to pump it.
The factors which support the circulation of the lymph are the same factors which support the venous return to the heart: 
Contraction of the skeletal muscles.
The pulsation of the nearby arteries can compress lymph vessels and move
the lymph within them.
The presence of the valves permitting the lymph to move only in the direction of the blood stream.
Pressure changes due to the contraction of respiratory muscles.
NB: the immobility blocks the drainage and causes edema.

Front 89

Major Lymph Trunks

Back 89

-Lumbar trunks: left and right, drain the lower limbs, the pelvis and the abdomen except the digestive system. 
-Intestinal trunk: drains the part of the digestive system located below the diaphragm. It receives the chyle from the digestive tract.
-Broncho-mediastinal trunks: left and right, drain the thorax. 
-Jugular trunks: left and right, drain head and neck.
-Subclavian trunks: left and right, drain the upper limbs.
These trunks then join one of the two collecting ducts; the thoracic duct or the right lymphatic duct.

Front 90

Right Lymphatic Duct

Back 90

-It is about 1.25 cm. in length, if present.
-It ends in the angle of confluence of the right subclavian and the right internal jugular veins (forming the beginning of the right brachiocephalic vein).
Tributaries: 
-The right lymphatic duct receives the lymph from the right side of the head and neck through the right jugular trunk; 
-from the right upper extremity through the right subclavian trunk;
-From the right side of the thorax, through the right bronchomediastinal trunk. 
-There are variations in the emptying point of the right lymphatic duct.

Front 91

Thoracic Duct

Back 91

-It begins in the abdomen by a triangular dilatation, the cisterna chyli, which is situated on the front of the body of the second lumbar vertebra, to the right side of and behind the aorta. The cisterna chyli receives the two lumbar lymphatic trunks, right and left, and the intestinal lymphatic trunk. On ascent, it receives the left bronchomediastinal, left subclavian and left jugular trunks.
-It therefore drains: 2 lower limbs, the pelvis and the abdomen, the left half of the head and neck the left half of the thorax, and the left upper limb. 
-The thoracic duct conveys the greater part of the lymph and chyle into the blood.
-It ends by opening into the left subclavian vein, the left internal jugular vein, or at the angle of junction of these two (left brachiocephalic). 
-At its termination, thoracic duct possesses a bicuspid valve which faces into the vein, to prevent reflux of blood into the duct.

Front 92

Macrophages

Back 92

-phagocytic
-androgen presenting (APC's)

Front 93

Lymphatic Nodules

Back 93

have germinal centers

Front 94

Lymph Nodes

Back 94

-facilitate antibody/antigen interaction --> aka immunity

Front 95

Spleen

Back 95

-largest lymphoid organ
-deep to ribs, left of stomach
-encapsulated organ surrounded by connective tissue
-has lymphatic nodules called splenic nodules in spleen
-red pulp & white pulp
-platelets "stored" in spleen when not in blood
-not essential for life, but more prone to infection without it
-2 Main Functions
1) Facilitate interaction of foreign antigens w/ cells of immune system (T cells, B cells, macrophages) (occurs in white pulp)
-splenic nodules (B Cells) & PALS (T cells)
2) To remove old red blood cells (macrophages) (occurs in red pulp)

Front 96

Central Artery

Back 96

-has uniform coating of lymphocytes around it
-acentric coat --> additional coat made up of B cells (if nodules are present) or T cells (if no nodules are present)
-2 coats --> white pulp --> always associated with central artery --> after they penetrate white pulp, arteries end

Front 97

Splenic Macrophages

Back 97

-PAMS
-Sheathed Capillaries

Front 98

Splenic Sinuses

Back 98

-sinusoidal capillaries that let blood back into vessels
-sinuses lined by macrophages --> remove anything left over that needs to be removed before re-entering blood circulation

Front 99

Thymus

Back 99

-only involved with immunity; no monitoring
-encapsulated organ
-epithelial reticular cells
-Thymic Globules --> divisions inside capsule of Thymus
1) outside --> Thymic Cortex
2) inside --> Thymic Medulla

Front 100

Hassall's Corpuscles

Back 100

-made up of endothelial reticular cells

Front 101

Thymus Cell Selection

Back 101

-Thymus selects perfect T cells for circulation
-Recognize body just enough to not attack own cells

Front 102

Blood-Thymus Barrier

Back 102

selective barrier that isolates the thymus from the rest of the body

Front 103

T Cells also made in diffuse lymphoid tissue (uncapsulated)

Back 103

-reason bone marrow transplant workd
-Diffuse Lypmhatic Tissue/MALT
-tissue is immediately deep to mucosa (first place an invader would enter)
-Cells that form nodules & have germinal center = B cells

Front 104

GALT

Back 104

Gastrointestinal Associated Lymphoid Tissue

Front 105

Tonsils

Back 105

-Associated with upper sections of gastrointestinal & respiratory systems
-Adenoids --> near opening of eustachian tube
-Palatine --> back of throat
-Lingual --> base of tongue
-together form Waldyer's ring

Front 106

Waldyer's Ring

Back 106

ring of tonsils at back of oral cavity

Front 107

Tonsilectomy

Back 107

-not done much any more
-any left over tissue regenerates

Front 108

Ileum

Back 108

-contains large lymphatic nodules called Pryor's Patches

Front 109

Vermiform Appendix

Back 109

-pouch off of colon (cecum)
-thought of as useful lymphatic tissue

Front 110

Body Defenses

Back 110

-provide resistance to fight infection, illness, and disease
-2 categories of defense
1) Innate --> non-specific defense
2) Adaptive --> specific defense
-the 2 work together to provide resistance to infection & disease

Front 111

Innate Immunity

Back 111

-provides initial defense against infection & injury
-comprised of cells & mechanisms that defend host from infection by other organisms in a non-specific way

Front 112

Primary Components of Innate Immunity

Back 112

1)Physical & Chemical Barriers
2)Phagocytic cells (neutrophils & macrophages), Natural Killer (NK) cells, & possibly dendritic cells
3)Blood Proteins, including members of complement system & other mediators of inflammation
4)Cytokines regulate & coordinated many of the activities of the cells of innate immunity

Front 113

Times of Innate & Adaptive Immunity

Back 113

-Innate Immunity: immediate response --> about 12 days
-Adaptive Immunity: after 1 day

Front 114

Defensins

Back 114

-on the skin
-enter cytoplasm of invader
-create osmotically active hole --> cell death

Front 115

Immunological Surveillance

Back 115

-carried out by NK cells
-Identify and attach to abnormal cell (nonselective)
-Golgi apparatus in NK cell: forms perforin vesicles
-Vesicles release proteins called perforins (exocytosis)
-Perforins lyse abnormal plasma membrane
-Also attack cancer cells and cells infected with viruses

Front 116

Immunological Surveillance with Cancer Cells

Back 116

With tumor-specific antigens:
-are identified as abnormal by NK cells
-some cancer cells avoid NK cells (immunological escape)

Front 117

Immunological Surveillance with Viral Infections

Back 117

Cells infected with viruses:
-present abnormal proteins on plasma membranes
-allow NK cells to identify and destroy them

Front 118

Complement Proteins

Back 118

-about 26 of them; in blood at all times
-activation -- > through a cascade or alternate pathway
-alternate pathway requires direct contact with a foreign body

Front 119

Functions of Complement Proteins

Back 119

-opsonization --> coat outside to make bacteria more susceptible to phagocytosis
-Membrane Attack Complex (MAC) --> directly lyse bacteria & foreign cells
-Causes inflammation --> histimine release, increased blood vessel permeability, chemotactic attracion of phagocytes

Front 120

Inflammation

Back 120

1) Produces chemotactic substances to attract phagocytes
2) Increase vascular permeability
3) Cause smooth muscle contraction promoting mast cell degranulation

Front 121

Interferons

Back 121

-almost any cell in the body can produce them when stimulated
-Assist immune system by:
1) inhibiting viral replication within host cell
2) inducing host cell resistance to viral infection
3) Activating NK cells and macrophages
4) Increasing antigen presentation to lymphocytes

Front 122

Inflammation (local response)

Back 122

-acute inflammation --> occures within seconds, minutes, hours, and days
-chronic inflammation --> occurs over long periods of time

Front 123

Events in acute inflammation

Back 123

1)Increased blood flow due to dilation of blood vessels (arterioles) supplying the region
2)Increased permeability of the capillaries, allowing fluid and blood proteins to move into the interstitial spaces
3)Migration of neutrophils (and perhaps a few macrophages) out of the venules and into interstitial spaces

Front 124

Signs of Inflammation

Back 124

-Redness
-Swelling
-Heat
-Pain
-Sometimes loss of function

Front 125

Inflammation begins with...

Back 125

chemical alarms

Front 126

Non-steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs (NSAID's)

Back 126

-used to reduce inflammation by blocking release of histamine
-glucocorticoids can also be used to stop inflammation

Front 127

Cryogenic Membrane

Back 127

isolates injured area/infection

Front 128

Vascular Effects during Inflammation

Back 128

-Release of histamine
1)Vasodilation --> Heat & Redness
2)Capillary Permeability --> Swelling & Pain

Front 129

Fever

Back 129

-a systematic response creating a high body temperature
-triggered by endogenous pyrogens
-resets internal thermostat in hypothalamus
1)increases body metabolism
2)accelerates defense
3)inhibits some viruses & bacteria

Front 130

Properties of Adaptive Immunity

Back 130

-adaptive immunity mechanisms are slow
1) Tolerance --> self antigens do not normally elicit an immune response
2) Specificity --> a specific defense is initiated by a specific antigen. Each lymphocyte has receptors that bind to one particular antigen i.e “lock and key”
3)Versatility – the numbers of lymphocyte receptors is variable enough to accommodate millions of possible antigens
4)Memory – the basis of acquired immunity

Front 131

Self & Non-self

Back 131

At the heart of the immune system is the ability to distinguish between self and nonself. Virtually every body cell carries distinctive molecules that identify it as self.

Front 132

MHC Class I

Back 132

found on all cells in the body

Front 133

MHC Class II

Back 133

Found on APCs e.g. macrophages, dendritic cells, and B cells

Front 134

Antigens

Back 134

-macromolecules that causes an immune response by lymphocytes.
-This response is mediated by an antigen receptor, a surface protein located on B cells and T cells, that specifically binds to antigens and initiates adaptive immune responses.
-The antigen receptors on B cells are called B cell receptors and the antigen receptors on T cells are called T cell receptors.

Front 135

Third line of defense in Adaptive Immunity

Back 135

Lymphocytes

Front 136

Humoral Immunity

Back 136

-antibodies in body fluids
-directed against extracellular bacteria
1)B Cells bind antigens --> becomes sensitized
2)B Cell encounters a helper T Cell --> activation
3)Begins secreting cytokines --> B Cell division
4)Inactive Memory B Cells produced
5)Stimulated Memory B Cells --> differentiate into plasma cell --> produce antibodies

Front 137

Cell-Mediated Immune Response

Back 137

-occurs when a foreign body enters the cell

Front 138

Antigen Presenting Cells (APC's)

Back 138

-Macrophages, Dendritic Cells, T Cells
-Amplifies B cell response

Front 139

Epitope

Back 139

-smallest part that can be recognized
-just one epitope needed for antigen recognition --> immunity

Front 140

Clonal Selection

Back 140

-There are many B cells with different receptors on surface
-B cells only respond to antigens that can fit with/bind with their particular receptor

Front 141

Functions of Antigen-Antibody Complexes

Back 141

-Neutralization of antigen-binding sites
-Precipitation and agglutination: formation of immune complex
-Activation of complement
-Attraction of phagocytes
-Opsonization: increasing phagocyte efficiency
-Stimulation of inflammation
-Prevention of bacterial and viral adhesion

Front 142

Induced Active Immunity

Back 142

Develops after administration of an antigen to prevent a disease

Front 143

Naturally Acquired Active Immunity

Back 143

Develops after exposure to antigens in environment

Front 144

Natural Acquired Passive Immunity

Back 144

Conferred by transfer of maternal antibodies across placenta or in breast milk

Front 145

Induced Passive Immunity

Back 145

Conferred by administration of antibodies to combat infection

Front 146

Pivotal Role of T(h) cell

Back 146

-Release cytokines
-stimulate B Cells --> humoral response (secretion of antibodies by plasma cells)
-stimulate Cytotoxic T Cells --> cell-mediated response (attack infected cells)

Front 147

Model of Immune Responses (Speed & Specificity)

Back 147

1)Neutrophils
2)NK cells
3)Macrophages
4)Cytotoxic T Cells
5)Plasma Cells
6)Antibody Titer

Front 148

Antibodies

Back 148

-belong to a class of protein molecules known as immunoglobulins.
-Immunoglobulins G, D, and E are similar in appearance.

Front 149

IgG

Back 149

the major immunoglobulin in the blood, is also able to enter tissue spaces; it works efficiently to coat microorganisms, speeding their destruction by other cells in the immune system. 

Front 150

IgD

Back 150

is almost exclusively found inserted into the membrane of B cells, where it somehow regulates the cell's activation. 

Front 151

IgE

Back 151

is normally present in only trace amounts, but it is responsible for the symptoms of allergy.

Front 152

IgA

Back 152

a doublet--guards the entrance to the body. It concentrates in body fluids such as tears, saliva, and secretions of the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts.

Front 153

IgM

Back 153

usually combines in star-shaped clusters. It tends to remain in the bloodstream, where it is very effective in killing bacteria.