Human Species Test 2

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primates

Back 1

members of ORDER primates

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primate characteristics

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generalized, not specialized
overall characteristics primate group as a whole

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limbs and locomotion

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limbs are flexible, prehensile hands, opposable thumbs, nails, quadrupedal

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diet and teeth

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omnivorous (mixed diet)
generalized dentition: teeth not specialized

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the senses and the brain

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stereoscopic vision, smell: reduced, brain: larger

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maturation, learning, and behavior

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few offspring, learned behavior is important

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evolutionary factors of primate adaptions

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about how traits evolved as adaptations to environments

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arboreal hypothesis

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traditional explanation of primate adaptation, life in trees

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visual predation hypothesis

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another explanation for primate characteristics

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flowering plants

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another explanation

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geographical distribution and habitats

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tropical and subtropical (most primates)
new world- mexico, central, south american
old world- africa, asia (NOT europe)

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diet and teeth

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dental formula-- layout teeth
1. old world anthropoids: 2 premolars
2. new world anthropoids: 3 premolars

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Locomotion

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terrestrial and arboreal, quadrupedal, brachiation, prehensile tail, knuckle walk

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primate order

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Order Primates within class Mammalia
Diverse: 230 species

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primate suborders

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1) Strepsirhini: Lemurs, lorises
2) Haplorhini: Tarsiers, monkeys, apes, humans

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taxonomy of primates

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traditional basis: physical similarities
recent: genetic basis

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lemurs and lorises

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suborder: stephsirhini
rhinarium moist (wet nose)

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where lemurs are from

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madagascar

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where lorises are from

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southeast asia and africa

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tarsiers

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islands southeast asia, nocturnal insectivores, some anthropoid features

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anthropoids

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monkeys, apes, humans
monkeys 85% of primates

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monkeys

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two groups, new world and old world

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new world monkeys

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forest of mexico, central, and south america
arboreal

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arboreal

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live in trees

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old world monkeys

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1. cercopithecines (omnivorous diet)
2. colobines (leaf eaters)

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hominoid apes

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small (lesser apes)
large (greater apes)
africa and asia

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gibbons and siamangs

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southeast asia, small bodied, brachiation

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brachiation

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arm over arm locomotion

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orangutans

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large bodied, indonesia (borneo and sumatra)
frugivorous

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frugivorous

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fruit eaters

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gorillas

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largest hominoid (ape), marked sexual dimorphism, knuckle walking (quadrupedal), forested areas equatorial africa, 4 subspecies, vegetarian, non ferocious

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chimpanzees

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equatorial africa, knuckle-walking mainly, variety of foods, group hunting, large communities, bonded males core

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bonobos

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slightly smaller than chimpanzees, male-female bonding, famous sexual behavior

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humans

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homo sapiens, hominin tribe (new taxonomy term)

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human characteristics shared with other primates

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primate heritage, primate teeth, dependence on vision, flexible limbs, grasping hands, omnivorous

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unique human characteristics

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brain size larger, dependent on culture, highly developed cognitive ability, habitual bipedal locomotion

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evolution of primate behavior

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study of behavior in free-ranging primates, from "ecological" and "evolutionary" perspective
relationship between: behaviors, natural environment, biological traits of species studied

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ecological

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relationship between organism and all aspects of environment
(ex: food resources and predators)

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behavioral ecology

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focuses on the relationship between behaviors, the natural environment, and biological traits of the species, some behavior influenced by genes, subject to natural selection

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evolution of behavior

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individuals with behavioral phenotypes that increase "reproductive fitness" pass on their genes at a faster rate than others

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primate social structure

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social structures are the results of the natural selection of specific habitats, guide individual interactions and social relationships, most social of animals, social behavior= one of the major topics in primate research

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some factors that influence social structure

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distribution of resources, predation

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resources

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1. leaves can be abundant and will support large groups of animals
2. fruits and nuts occur in clumps, more exploited by smaller groups of animals
3. primates are vulnerable to many types of predators
4. where predation pressure is high, large communities are advantageous

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primate social behavior

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primates solve major adaptive problems in a "social context", ***several behaviors reinforce integrity of group***, includes dominance, communication, aggression, affiliation, and altruism

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dominance

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many primate societies are organized into dominance hierarchies, impose a certain degree of order, higher ranking animals have greater access to preferred food items and mating partners, dominance hierarchies called "pecking orders"

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communication

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raised body hair is an example of autonomic response, vocalizations and branch shaking are examples of deliberate communication, reassurance is communicated through hugging and holding hands, the fear grin (in all primates), indicates fear and submission

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displays

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communicate emotional states, elaborate, complicated, repetitive
gorilla-- chest slapping, tear vegetation as threat display

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aggressive interactions

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*aggression within group* conflict within a gorup frequently develops out of competition for resources, including mating partners and foot items
*agression against intrusion* often to protect individual or group resources

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home range

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primate groups are associated with a home range where they live permanently

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core area

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core area is portion within home range that contains the highest concentration of predictable resources

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affiliation and altruism

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many behaviors minimize violence, reinforce bonds between individuals and enhance group stability

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affiliative behaviors

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grooming-- pick through fur
social grooming common among primates, reinforces social relationships
altruism: behaviors that benefit another while posing risk to oneself

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primate cultural behavior

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cultural behavior is learned--> passed from generation to generation through learning
term "cultural primatology" now used

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learning

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nonhuman primate infants, through observing their mothers and others

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cultural tradition

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when learned behavior is passed to offspring, a "cultural tradition" may emerge for a group or species

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koshima macaques

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japan, koshima island, macaques
first reported example of cultural behavior (among monkeys)

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chimpanzee cultural behavior

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chimpanzee tool use
1. termite fishing
2. leaf sponges
3. hammerstones and platforms to crack nuts

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chimpanzee hunting tools

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chimpanzees in west africa sharpened sticks to hunt galagos

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regional variation

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only chimpanzees habitually make and use tools, regional variations of tools used, *regional dietary preferences*

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kanzi stone flakes

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recent example, male bonobo produced sharp stone flakes by smashing stones on the floor

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closed system

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assumed that nonhuman animals use a closed system, these views have been challenged

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vervet monkeys

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have diff alarm calls for particular predators: snakes, eagles, leopards
the calls are voluntary and are learned (but limited)

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human language

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a set of written/spoken symbols
symbols are arbitrary
recombine symbols for new meanings, described as an open system

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apes

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apes can learn to interpret visual signs and use communication

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apes not speaking has to do with

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anatomy of vocal track, language-related structures in the brain

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experiments (primate communication)

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attempts to teach chimps to speak failed

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washoe

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chimpanzee

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loulis

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chimp

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chantek

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orangutan

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sherman and austin

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chimpanzees

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koko

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gorilla

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kanzi

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chimp

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kanzi

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bonobo (chimp), used symbols (lexigrams), claimed that he spontaneously acquired and used symbols

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primate communication

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evidence that humans are not the only species capable of some degree of symbolic thought and complex communication

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cenezoic periods

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paleocene (oldest)
eocene
oligocene
miocene
pliocene
pliestocene
holocene (newest)

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how to remember cenozoic periods

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PEO please excuse oliver
MPPH my people prefer happinesss

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primate evolution

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early ancestors followed by 4 levels
1. prosimians (oldest)
2. anthropoids
3. hominoids
4. hominins (newest)

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how to remember primate evolution

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PAHH please also help harold

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eocene

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*earliest definite primates appear*
"first primates of modern aspect"
fossols found in N America and europe
continents connected until oligocene
*eocene prosiminian radiation*
many prosimians appear

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oligocene

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many oligocene fossils from fayum, egypt including: apidium, aegyptopithecus
illstrate roots of anthropoid evolution

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miocene

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spectacular hominoid radiation, diverse species
africa, asia, europe
"golden age of hominoids", none in new world

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african hominoids

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proconsul best known for miocene hominoid in africa

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european forms of hominoids

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dryopithecus is best known european genus

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asian forms of hominoids

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sivapithecus is best known genus

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hominid divergence

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initial divergence of "hominids" from african "hominids"
occurred during late miocene, hominids are *BIPEDAL*

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distinctive hominin characteristics

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bipedal locomotion (early)
large brain (later)
tool making (at some stage)

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mosaic evolution

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characteristics did not evolve at same time and place, "mosaic evolutionary pattern", physiological and behavior systems evolve at diff rates

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bipedal locomotion

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most distinctive feature of family hominidiae, single most important characteristic of hominid evolution indicating if a fossil is a hominid, other features (brain size/behavior) are important later

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traditional classification (hominids/hominoids)

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hominoids superfamily= humans and apes
hominids family= bipedal hominoids

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revised classification***

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***two levels were added to the traditional classification, "subfamily" and "tribe"

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advantages of bipedalism

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freed the hands, wider view of the surrounding environment, efficient means of covering long distances

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bipedal modifications

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pelvis most dramatic: shorter, broader, oriented more to sides, (basin-like shape, elongated in quadrupeds)

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more bipedal modifications

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foramen magnum repositioned, spinal curvature, lengthening of leg, femur angled inward, longitudinal arch, big toe realigned

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most distinctive human behavioral feature
(biocultural evolution)

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bdependence of culture, biology makes culture possible, culture further influences biological evolution

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biocultural evolution

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protohominids-- earliest members of hominid lineage did not regularly make stone tools, more elaborate tools and social relationships emerged (culture), these selcted for greater intelligence

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paleoanthropology as a multidisciplinary science

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use skills of several disciplines: geologists, archaeologists, physical anthropologists, paleoecologists

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early hominin tools

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most perishable, stone tools are first recognizable artifacts, simple hammer stones, oldowan tools

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dating methods

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relative dating, chronometric (absolute)

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relative dating

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determines if object is older or younger than other objects

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stratigraphy

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(relative), layering of deposits

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fluorine analysis

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bones incorporate fluorine from (relative) groundwater during fossilization, longer buried= more fluorine, only compare bones from same location

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biostratigraphy

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(relative) uses fossils of better known animals to help date associated hominid remains
(ex: pigs, rodents, baboons)

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paleomagnetism

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(relative) shifting of the geomagnetic pole, magnetic particles act as ancient compass, point to location for pole when rock formed

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chornometric (absolute) dating

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provides an estimate of age in actual number of years, most are "radiometric", based on rate of radioactive decay

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potassium/argon (K/Ar)

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(absolute), potassium decays into argon gas, heating "resets" clock, volcanic rock in east africa (dates rock, not bone)

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carbon-14

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(absolute), dates organiz material (bone/wood)

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fission-track

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(absolute), counts tracks left in crystalline rocks as uranium atoms disintegrate

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early hominins found in africa

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central, east, south

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major groups of hominds

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pre-australopiths (7-4.4 mya)
australopiths (4.2-1 mya)
early homo

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pre-australopith hominids

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earliest remains classified as "hominids" now called "hominins"

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3 genera of pre-australopith hominids

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sahenanthropus, orrorin, ardipithecus

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sahelanthropus tchadensis

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*country of chad in central africa*, new genus from Toros-Menalla
oldest (basal) hominid if proven
vertical face

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orrorin tugenensis

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east africa (kenya), "hominid" bc bipedal, teeth, lower limb bones

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ardipithecus ramidus

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east africa, "pre-australopith", bipedal

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australopiths

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australopithecus
well known, widely distributed, and diverse
several species but only one of two genera

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2 genera of australopiths

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australopithecus, paranthropus

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common features of australopiths

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bipedal, small brains (compared to homo). large teeth, esp the back, thick enamel on molars

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early and late australopiths

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early primitive forms, later more derived

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ausstralopithecus anemensis

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the earliest of the "early more primitive australopiths"

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australopithecus afarensis

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more complete remains. famous sites. hadar, laetoli

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hadar (a. afarensis site)

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east africa, dating 3.9 and 2.3 mya
finds include: lucy

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laetoli (a. afarensis site)

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east africa, fossilized hominid footprints in volcanic ash, bipedal

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later more derived austrapoliths

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hominids more diverse after 2.5
includes paranthropus

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paranthropus

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most derived austrapolith, specializations related to powerful chewing, large deep lower jaw, chewing muscles attached to sagittal crest

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south africa

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becomes important in history of hominid discoveries, first australopithecine "the missing link" between apes and humans discovered at a quarry ad Taung
the first discovered, not the earliest

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tuang (australopithecus africanus discovered)

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south africa quarry at taung
first australopithecine discovered
or the "missing link" by **Raymond Dart**
foramen magnum forward unde the skull
upright walking indicated but had small brain
named "australopithecus africanus"
darts report rejected

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australopithecus africanus: a "gracile" australopith

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"gracile" refers to a variety of later derived australopiths, smaller teeth than robust types, lighter face

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review of hominids from south africa

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most from 9 caves, limestone areas, no volcanic matter

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where was early homo discovered

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east africa

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early homo

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first of our genus "homo", represented by fossils in east africa, dates as early as in east a africa as 2.5 mya, as early as some robust "paranthropus" in the area

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olduvai gorge

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where "homo habilis" was discovered and named
louis and mary leakey conducted continuous excavations
e. africa, deep ravine 25 miles long, 2 mya geological, paleontological sequence, volcanic activity good for dating (not limestone caves like s africa)

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homo habilis

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in "early homo" category, discovered at olduvai gorge, named "habilis" handyman bc of **tools**, brain >631 cm, claimed to be early olduvai toolmakers

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habilis at olduvai

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probably ancestor leading to homo sapiens, living at same time as paranthropus a late line of australopith

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adaptive patterns of early african hominins

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1. restricted range
2. partial arboreal adaptation
3. not much increase in body size
4. not much increase in brain size until early homo
5. no patterned stone tool manufacture until early homo
6. accelerated development of young

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groups of plio-pleistocene hominids

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1. pre-australopiths
2. australopiths (early primitive, later, more derived)
3. early homo