Human Species Exam Review For Ch. 6-8

Front 1

balanced polymorphism

Back 1

-the maintenance of two or more alleles in a population
-due to the selective advantage of the heterozygote
-the 2 alleles are "balanced" and persist
-heterozygous carriers survive(resistent to malaria)

Front 2

Lactose interloerance

Back 2

another example of biocultural evolution
- in all human populations, infants and young children are able to kigest milk
-broken down by enzyme " lactase"

Front 3

lactose tolerant populations

Back 3

the geographical distribution of lactose tolerance is related toa history of cultural dependence on fresh milk poducts
-shifts gene frequency for more lactose tolerance

Front 4

populations genetics

Back 4

measures and explains evolutionary changes in contemporary populations
-the study of the frequency of alleles, genotypes, and phenotypes i populations from a microevolutionary perspective

Front 5

population

Back 5

a group of interbreeding individuals
-a group where one is most likely to find a mate
-such a population shares "gene pool"

Front 6

gene pool

Back 6

the total complement of genes ahared by the reproductive members of a population.

Front 7

mate choice factors

Back 7

geographical, ecological, and social

Front 8

cultural rules

Back 8

human populations have degrees of
- endogamy
-exogamy

Front 9

endogamy

Back 9

marrying inside the group

Front 10

exogamy

Back 10

marrying outside the group

Front 11

population genetics to determine if evolution took place

Back 11

first specific human populations are identified
- next measure allele frequency for specific traits
-compare fequencies with set predicted by mathematical model

Front 12

Hardy- weinberg " equilibrium"

Back 12

the central theorem of population genetics
-the mathematical relationship expressign the " predicted distribution" of alleles in populations

Front 13

Hardy-Weinberg Formula

Back 13

predicts distribution of genes in a population
- involves percentages remaining constant(under certain conditions)
-genes having equal chance of recombining in next generation
-determines if allele frequencies are changed

Front 14

two levels of adaptive responses

Back 14

physiological responses:
1. long term
2. acclimatization ( short term)

Front 15

long term

Back 15

long-term ( genetic) evolutionary changes
- characterize all individuals w/i a population or species

Front 16

short-term ( acclimatization)

Back 16

temporary physiological response

Front 17

responses to environment

Back 17

exs. of environmental condidition
- solar radiation
-thermal environment
-high altitude

Front 18

skin color influenced by:

Back 18

hemoglobin
carotene
melanin

Front 19

hemoglobin

Back 19

when it is carrying oxgen, gives a reddish tinge to the skin

Front 20

carotene

Back 20

a plant pigment which the body synthesizes into vitamin A; provides a yelllowish cast

Front 21

melanin

Back 21

skin colored most influenced by pigment melanin

Front 22

melanin theories

Back 22

ultraviolet radiation( UV)
Vitamin D Hypothesis
folate(UV light and Vitamin D synthesis)

Front 23

ultraviolet radiation(UV)

Back 23

darket skin was favorable nearer equator
-melanin blocks UV and helps prevent skin cancer

Front 24

Vitamin D hypothesis

Back 24

another explanation for depigmented skin in some northern areas
-lighter skin may help absorb UV where less sun light
-UV needed for vitamin D production

Front 25

Folate ( UV light and Vitamin D Synthesis)

Back 25

an additional explanation for distribution of skin color
-UV radiation depletes folate
-dark skin a protective response

Front 26

thermal environment

Back 26

mammmals and birds have evolved complex physiological mechanisms to maintain a constant body temperature

Front 27

human response to heat

Back 27

long-term adaptations to heat evolved in our ancestors

Front 28

sweat glands

Back 28

loss of heat by evaporative cooling
-capacity to sweat in all populations almost equal

Front 29

vasodilation

Back 29

widening of capilaries near the skin's surface
-"hot" blood dissipates heat to the surrounding air

Front 30

body

Back 30

size and proportion regulate body temperature

Front 31

two rules about relationship b/w body temperature and climate

Back 31

1. bergmann's rule
2. allen's rule

Front 32

bergmann's rule

Back 32

body size that live in colder climates

Front 33

allen's rule

Back 33

human response to cold

Front 34

metabolic rate in response to cold

Back 34

increasing metabolic rate and shivering
-short-term generation of body heat

Front 35

vasoconstriction

Back 35

narrowing of blood vessels

Front 36

factors that produce stress due to high atltitude:

Back 36

hypoxia( reduced available oxygen)
-intense solar radiation
-cold
-low humidity
-wind ( amplifies cold stress)

Front 37

adult acclimatization

Back 37

people born in low elevation
-move to higher area

Front 38

developmental acclimatization

Back 38

high-altitude natives adapt during growth

Front 39

infectious diseases

Back 39

caused by invading organisms such as bacteria, viruses, or fungi.
-they have exerted selcective pressures on human populations
-they influence the frequency of certain alleles that affect the immune response

Front 40

hunters and gathers in relation to infectious disease

Back 40

-less problem w/ i.disease
-nomadic groups
-less contact w/ fefuse heaps and vectors

Front 41

vectors

Back 41

agents transmit disease
-mosquitoes are vectors for malaria
-fleas for bubonic plaque

Front 42

agriculture and cities

Back 42

settlements became large, crowded
-opprotunity for disease greater at unsanity

Front 43

endemic(continuous) disease

Back 43

requires larger population
-small bands of hunters-gatherers not faced w/ continuous exposure to endemic disease

Front 44

zoonotic diseases

Back 44

disease transmitted to humans through contact w/ non-human domesticated animals

Front 45

pahtogens

Back 45

agents, especially microorganisms such as viruses, bacteria, or fungi, that infect a host and cause disease

Front 46

black death

Back 46

best-known epidemic in history
-bubonic plague spread by fleas
-mid 14th century europe where as many as one-third died

Front 47

epidemic

Back 47

spreads rapidly among many

Front 48

pandemic

Back 48

disease affecting large number over wide area
-potentially worldwide
-influenza outbreak in 1918 at the end of WW1

Front 49

selective pressures on pathogens

Back 49

humans and pathogens exert selective pressure on eachother
-microorganisms also evolve and adapt to various pressures
-it is an advantage to a pathogen not to kill its host to quickly
-populations exposed for first time to new disease frequently die in huge numbers

Front 50

SARS

Back 50

severe acute respiratory syndrome
-another contemporary example of zoonotic disease

Front 51

the decrease of infectious disease

Back 51

before 20th century infectious disease number one cause of death.
-the use of antibiotics starting late 1940's reduced overall death rate
-hear disease and cancer became leading causes

Front 52

antibiotics

Back 52

exerted selective pressure on bacteria which developed antibiotic strains ( natural selection)-influenza,pneumonia, cholera, tuberculosis, less responsive to treatment

Front 53

modern humans are a result of...

Back 53

biocultural evolution

Front 54

evolutionary and cultural forces operate on our life course through...

Back 54

interaction of environment and genes

Front 55

an ex. or interaction b/w environment an genes

Back 55

stature-children w/good health and adequate nutrition;more likely to reach their genetic potential for height;

Front 56

growth

Back 56

refers to increase in cell mass or number of cells

Front 57

development

Back 57

cells develop different types of tissues

Front 58

brain growth

Back 58

grows at a greater rate than any other part except for the eye.- at birth the brain is about 25% of its adult size.

Front 59

nutritional requirements for growth

Back 59

nutrition has an impact on growth at every stage

Front 60

nutrients needed for growth and development

Back 60

proeins, carbs,lipids(fats), vitamins, minerals

Front 61

evolution of nutritional requirements

Back 61

amount of each nutrient needed
-coevoled w/foods available to human ancestors (inherited ability to digest certain foods)

Front 62

essential amino acids

Back 62

they are required; reflect ancestral diet high in animal protein; essential amino acids must be obtained from food; not synthesized in body. -found in meat

Front 63

modern diets

Back 63

many diseases are related to lack of fit; the ability to store fat was one an advantage; now it is a liability b/c food is relatively abundant

Front 64

agricultural revolution

Back 64

responsible for some food and health problems; narrowed food base; increase in human population; millions face undernutrition, malnutrition, starvation

Front 65

other factors influencing growth and development

Back 65

genetics, hormones, environmental factors

Front 66

genetics

Back 66

determines potentials for growth and development

Front 67

hormones

Back 67

genes can effect hormones; almost alll have effect on growth

Front 68

environmental factors

Back 68

altitude and climate; external factors effect nutrition/ climate(cold/hot) influences body shape

Front 69

life history theory

Back 69

study of human growth and development from evolutionary perspective; how natural selection has operated on the life cycle

Front 70

phase of life history

Back 70

humans have more phases than other mammals

Front 71

most primates have **** phases

Back 71

four

Front 72

monkeys, apes, and humans have how many phases in life

Back 72

five

Front 73

humans add a ***** phase for women

Back 73

sixth

Front 74

prenatall(to birth)

Back 74

the first phase in the human life cycle

Front 75

infancy

Back 75

the second face in the human life cycle
( while baby nurses)

Front 76

childhood

Back 76

the third phase in the human life cycle
(to puberty)

Front 77

adolescence

Back 77

4th phase in human life cycle
( subadult)-(puberty to end of growth)

Front 78

adulthood

Back 78

5th and final phase of human life cycle ( the completion of growth)

Front 79

postreproductive

Back 79

the extra phase in human females ( the years after menopause)

Front 80

brain growth in infancy( stage 1)

Back 80

undeveloped brain at infancy
-advantageous for birth through narrow pelvis
-adaptive b/c growth takes place in stimulating envirionment

Front 81

language development in brain occurs...

Back 81

during the first three years

Front 82

nursing in infancy ( stage2)

Back 82

four years seem norm for most humans in evolutionary past

Front 83

Chidhood (stage 3)

Back 83

b/w weaning and puberty
-humans have an unusually long childhood
-reflects inmportance of learning for our species

Front 84

adolescence (stage 4)

Back 84

hormonal changes are the drining force behind physical changes during adolescence

Front 85

adulthood (stage 5)

Back 85

pregnancy and child care occupy much of a woman's adult life in most cultures

Front 86

postreproductive (stage 6)

Back 86

a post-reproductive stage is unique life cycle stage for humans( not found in primates)
-menopause signal entry into new stage

Front 87

why is there a long nonreproductive period?

Back 87

parenting,grandmother,nonselection

Front 88

parenting

Back 88

females programmed to live years after last child

Front 89

grandmother theory

Back 89

free to provide food and other resources to children and grandchildren
-increases survival of grandchildren

Front 90

nonselection theory

Back 90

menopause is an artifact of the recent extension of the human life span

Front 91

human longevity

Back 91

humans have long life span
-life span (max) not changed in thousands of years
-life expectancy has increased

Front 92

senescence(explanation of aging)

Back 92

the process of physiological decline in body function that occurs with aging

Front 93

pleiotropy

Back 93

genes that enhanced reproductive success in earlier years may have detrimental effects later

Front 94

pleiotropic genes

Back 94

have more than one effect or different effects during the life cycle

Front 95

free radicals

Back 95

molecules that can damage cells
-protection provided by antioxidants

Front 96

Telomere hypothesis

Back 96

DNA sequence at end of chromosome
- it is shortened each time cell divides

Front 97

life style

Back 97

more important than genes in aging process

Front 98

individuals, society, evolution

Back 98

humans are social animals; study ways natural selection has acted on behavior of humans in social contexts
- such as increasing reproductive success or fitness

Front 99

behavior ecology

Back 99

examines human social behavior in evolutionary framework

Front 100

evolutionary psychology

Back 100

study of how natural selection has influenced how humans (and other primates) think

Front 101

chimpanzee and bonobo

Back 101

( ex. of evolutionary psychology)

Front 102

chimpanzee society

Back 102

based on male-male competition
-occasional violence

Front 103

Bonobo society

Back 103

female dominated
-based on cooperation and peacful interaction

Front 104

there are challenges and problems facing humanity that should be seen by what perspective

Back 104

"anthropological perspective"

Front 105

anthropological perspective

Back 105

includes consideration of our "biological and cultural evolution" to understand the impact of human activities
-studies early human activities
-insight from past helps understanding and plans for future

Front 106

map of deforestation

Back 106

humans are numerous
-more than 6 billion
-humans regard our species as masters of the planet

Front 107

longevity of human species

Back 107

humans not a species w/ much longevity
-homo erectus most successful(human) species

Front 108

homo-erectus existing for ***** years

Back 108

1.5 million/ most successful human species

Front 109

rate of culture change

Back 109

most of human history-technology simple
-rate of culture change is slow

Front 110

mesolithic(archaeological period or stage)

Back 110

(proceeding neolithic) increased expoitation of smaller animals, fish, shellfish
-increased variety of tools
-somewhat less nomadic

Front 111

domestication

Back 111

around 10,000 years ago
-some people keep domesticated animals and grow crops

Front 112

neolithic

Back 112

the period when humans began to domesticate plants and animals
-date varies
-more reliable food sources
-increased population growth

Front 113

neolithic period is significant b/c...

Back 113

drastic impact on environment w/ permanent settlements
-most forest and woodlands cleared in europe( some forest fires by hunter-gatherers)
- devastating impact by agriculture communities

Front 114

cutting forest( early)

Back 114

reasons: clearing for cultivation and grazing
-fire wood
-lumber for construction

Front 115

cutting forest (later)

Back 115

reasons: small communtities became towns and cities
-shipbuilding, fortifications, temples, palaces

Front 116

exploitation of forests lasted for **** years

Back 116

10-15,000 years

Front 117

cedars of Lebanon

Back 117

one of the earliest exs. of extensive lumber use
-cutting famous cedars of lebanon

Front 118

maya civilization( mexico, central america) collapse

Back 118

speculated that collapse resulted from: climate change
-over- cultivation
-depletion of nutrient-poor tropical soils

Front 119

Andean argriculture (Peru)

Back 119

archaelogists find positive exs.
-peru and bolivia had regions w/ poor soil
-difficult to produce meager existence in modern world

Front 120

early andean agriculture

Back 120

innovative techniques of ancestors
-produced enormous wealth
-building one of the largest, best organized empires in the world

Front 121

inka( inca)

Back 121

agricultural fields
-included terracing, irrigation
- methods today have improved crop yield(w/ less damage fertilizer and cost)

Front 122

biodiversity

Back 122

totality of all living thigs
- from bacteria to humans

Front 123

first major extinction occured about **** milliion years ago

Back 123

250 million years-resulted from climate change following the joining of all landmasses into one super continet

Front 124

second major extinction occure about ** million years ago

Back 124

65 million years-ended ecolutionary processes that produced the dinosaurs
-believed to be result of climate changes following impact of asteroid

Front 125

third major extinction

Back 125

began in late pleistocene or early holocene
-

Front 126

holocene period

Back 126

recent period- started 10,000 years ago
-recent and ongoing extinctions due to activities of homo sapiens
-continuing now

Front 127

hunting and climate

Back 127

many scientists believ several large mammal species9 especially prey animals) pushed to extinction b/c of overhunting by early humans

Front 128

extinction in north america

Back 128

57 mammalian species became extinct
- mammoth, mastodon, gieant ground sloth, saber-tooth cat, large rodents, numerous grazing animals
- result of climate, and hunting activities

Front 129

new world hunting

Back 129

established by humans in North America 12,000 yrs ago

Front 130

olsen-chubbuck site

Back 130

archeological site
-bison kill site
-game drive contributed to demise of some large-bodied brey species in new world

Front 131

continued impact of extinction

Back 131

since the end of pleistocene human activity continued to take toll
- today species disappearing at unprecedented rate

Front 132

hunting in relation to extinction

Back 132

continues to be a factor in extinction

Front 133

habitat reduction

Back 133

habitat loss is most important single caue of extinction
-direct result of human population growth
- creating need for building materials and living areas

Front 134

rainforest

Back 134

greatest threat is to countless unknown species in world's rainforests
-home to over 1/2 the worlds plants and animals
-1/2 of remains will be gone by 2022 at present rate of destruction

Front 135

the present crisis of our cultural heritage

Back 135

few people are aware of serious environmental problems
- even fewer are will to do anything about it

Front 136

overpopulation

Back 136

the major single challenge facing humanity
-population growth tied to other problems

Front 137

population growth

Back 137

10,000 yrs ago only around 5million people
- it is presently 6 billion people

Front 138

population growth began to ****** at the end of 20th century

Back 138

it began to decrease
-average number of children from 4.3 to 2.6 in 2000
-there has been a decrease in family size world wide

Front 139

while average births per woman have declined...

Back 139

huge populaton growth in next century
-approximately half of people in developing world are less than 15

Front 140

agricultural lands

Back 140

dramatic fluctuations weather patterns
-changes in temperature and rainfall
-loss of agricultural lands

Front 141

disease

Back 141

spread of mosquito-born disease
-warmer temp increased range or insect and vertebrate vectors

Front 142

prevention of disease

Back 142

only chance of reversing trends is by sacrifice
-much responsibility on industrialized west

Front 143

famly planning

Back 143

population containment; family planning to halt population expansion

Front 144

U.S. produces ***** percent of carbon dioxide

Back 144

25-30 percent of carbon dioxide

Front 145

ecological footprints

Back 145

the average amount of land and sea required for each person to support his or her lifestyle

Front 146

use of fewer resources

Back 146

we need to make dramatic sacrifices now;
must use less resources