Human Sexuality Exam

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Gender

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The state of being male or female. Also known as sex.

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Sexual Behavior

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- Any behavior that produces arousal and increases the chance of orgasm.

- Any behavior that increases the chance of gametic union (sperm and egg union).

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History of Sexuality: Religion - Greeks

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- Ancient Greeks openly acknowledged both heterosexuality and homosexuality.

- Believed a myth that human were formerly "double creatures" which had twice the many organs and limbs - either split male/male, female/female, or male/female and that the gods split them to two separate entities in fear of their power which is why people seek for a sexual partner to find their other "half".

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History of Sexuality: Religion - 15th Century Christians

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- Believed that wet dreams resulted from intercourse with tiny spiritual creatures called "incubi" (male form) and "succubi" (female form).

- A people had wet dreams were considered guilty of sodomy as well as witchcraft.

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History of Sexuality: Religion - Islam

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- Muslims believed that sexual intercourse i one of the finest pleasures of life, reflecting the teachings of Prophet Muhammed.

- Teachings vary and are interpreted in different ways greatly from country to country.

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History of Sexuality: Religion

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- Religion and rumors provided the most information regarding what ancient people thought about sex.

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History of Sexuality: Science

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- Studies in sexuality and sexual behavior became most prevalent around the 19th century to study sexual behavior.

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History of Sexuality: Science - Anton van Leeuwenhoek

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- Dutch microscopist (1632 - 1723).

- Discovered swimming in human semen.

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History of Sexuality: Science - Oskar Hertwig

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- (1849 - 1922)

- First to observe the actual fertilization of the egg by sperm in sea urchins in 1875.

- The ovum of humans however, was not observed until the 20th century.

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History of Sexuality: Science - Sigmund Freud

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- Founder of psychoanalysis and psychiatry.

- Viennese physician (1856 - 1936).

- Considered to have impacted major advances in the understanding of the psychological aspects of sexuality.

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History of Sexuality: Science - Henry Havelock Ellis

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- Physician in Victorian Era England (1859 - 1939)

- Compiled a cast collection of information on sexuality including medical and anthropologic findings.

- Published "Studies in the Psychology of Sex".

- He believed women, like men, are sexual creatures and sexual deviations from the norm are harmless.

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History of Sexuality: Science - Richard von Krafft-Ebing

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- 19th century psychiatrist (1840 - 1902)

- His research focused primarily on "pathological sexuality", collecting over 200 case histories of pathological individuals

- Published "Psychopathia Sexualis".

- Coined the terms: sadism, masochism, pedophilia, heterosexuality, and homosexuality.

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History of Sexuality: Victorian Era

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- Marked during the 1800's in Europe and in the US.

- Norms for sexuality were very rigid and oppressive, especially towards females.

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History of Sexuality: Science - Magnus Hirschfeld

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- From Germany (1868 - 1935).

- Founded the first sex research institute and administered the first large-scale sex survey from 10,000 people on a 130-item questionnaire. Unfortunately, most information he amassed was destroyed by the Nazis.

- Established the first journal devoted to sexual studies.

- Established marriage counseling, worked for legal reforms, and counseling in contraception and sex problems.

- He was homosexual and transvestite, and coined the term transvestite.

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History of Sexuality: 20th Century

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- A major breakthrough in the scientific understanding of sex came from massive survey of human sexual behavior in the US by Alfred Kinsey and hi colleagues in the 1940's and with Masters and Johnson's investigations of sexual disorders as well as the physiology of sexual response.

- Margaret Mead and Bronislaw Malinowski collected data of sexual behavior of different cultures thus expanding the array of sexual research.

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Media and Sexuality: USA

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- Influence of media in American households played a large role.

- 98% of American households have TVs.

- 43% of Americans have a TV in the bedroom, including of young ages as 3 to 4 year old children.

- American adolescents spend about 11 hours a day with some form of media.

- A typical week of TV broadcast in 2005 showed 35% of some form of sexual behavior, up from 23% from 1998.

- References to safe sex and STD's only make up 2%.

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Cultivation

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- In communication theory, the view that exposure to the mass media makes people think that what they see there represents the mainstream of what really occurs.

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Agenda Setting

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- In communications theory, the idea that the media define what is important and what is not by which stories they cover.

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Social Learning

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In communications theory, the idea that the media provide role models for whom we imitate.

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Culture

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- Traditional ideas and values passed down from generation to generation within a group and transmitted to members of the group by symbols (such as language).

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Ethnocentricism

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- The tendency to regard one's ethnic group and culture as superior to others and to believe that its customs and way of life are the standards by which other cultures should be judged.

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Incest Taboo

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- A regulation prohibiting sexual interaction between blood relatives.

- This taboo is considered universal in all societies.

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Sexuality: Cross-Cultural Perspectives

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- All societies regulate sexual behavior.

- All societies include passionate kissing.

- Sexual behavior for the most part however, varies greatly from culture.

- The incest taboo is universally accepted.

- Almost all societies have a postpartum sex taboo (intercourse after giving birth).

- All societies disapprove adult masturbation.

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Culture

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- Traditional ideas and values transmitted to members of the group by symbols which serve as the basis for patterns of behavior observed in the group.

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Masturbation

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- Self stimulation of the genitals to produce sexual arousal.

- Some societies tolerate or encourage masturbation in young adolescents while others condemn the practice while all societies disapprove adult masturbation.

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Variation in Sexual Techniques

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- Thonga people of Africa considered kissing to be strange.

- Kwakiutl (Canada) and the Trobriand Islanders suck each others tongues and lips.

- Ponape Islanders are known to place a fish in a woman's vulva and then lick it out before coitus.

- Apinaye of the Brazilian Highlands are known to receive pleasure from painful stimulation.

- Irish have the lowest frequency of sex (twice a month).

- Mangaians have the highest frequency of sex (several times a night).

- Only few societies encourage sex at particular times.

- African Azande women practice masturbation with a wooden root.

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Cross - Cultural: Premarital and Extramarital Sex

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- Marquesans of Eastern Polynesia encourage sex at a young age with many partners.

- Siwa Egyptians condone premarital intercourse and girls around ages of 7 and 8 undergo clitoral circumcision to prevent arousal.

- 90% of Pacific Islanders practice premarital sex, 88% of African, and 82% of Eurasians.

- 73% of Mediterranean societies prohibit premarital sex.

- 74% of surveyed cultures prohibit extramarital sex and for ones that do, still have restrictions usually for women.

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Cross - Cultural: Same Gender Sex

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- Some countries such as the Netherlands, Sweden, Austria, Belgium, France, Germany,

Denmark, Greece, Britain, Italy, and Spain hold positive attitudes to same gender sex.

- Some countries such as Belarus, Estonia, Bulgaria, Russia, Croatia, Lithuania, Poland, Portugal, Romania, and Ukraine hold negatives attitudes towards same gender sex.

- Few cultures such as the Aka of Central Africa and people of Indonesia do not hold an identity for homosexuality.

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Standards of Attractiveness

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- All societies find physical characteristics important in determining the choosing of a sexual partner.

- Most cultures define beauty to be thin than plump.

- Some societies judge beauty through either eye color, ear shape, or genitalia shape (Nawa Africans).

- Poor complexion is considered unattractive in majority studies.

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Social Class And Sex

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- Education is an indicator of social class.

- More educated people, for both male and female, are known to masturbate annually than less educated people.

- Oral sex is more prevalent in educated individuals with little variations for men, unless compared to men who graduated high school to those that haven't.

- 3/4 of Americans engage in oral sex.

- Abortion rates are higher in educated women.

- Percent of individuals with multiple sexual partners a year are the same in all education levels.

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Ethnicity and Sexuality in America: African American

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- Lowest percentage for masturbation: 40% males, 32% females.

- Lowest rank for oral sex: 38% males, 42% females.

- Highest percentage of non married individuals: 46% males and 44% females.

- Lowest percent (22%) of abortions.

- Highest percentage of sexual partners in one year: 32% males and 22% females.

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Ethnicity and Sexuality in America: Whites

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- 100/100 male female ratio.

- Highest percentage of masturbation in females (44%).

- Highest percentage of oral sex: 61% males, 68% females.

- Lowest percent of unmarried males (28%).

- Highest percentage of homosexuality:10% males, 5% females.

- Least percentage of individuals with multiple sexual partners.

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Ethnicity and Sexuality in America: Hispanic Descent (Latino / Latina)

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- Highest ratio of males to females (104:100).

- High percentage of masturbation (67%) in men, equal to white percentage in white men.

- Second highest percentage of multiple sexual partners in a year: (22% males, 13% females).

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Ethnicity and Sexuality in America: Asians

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- Least known in terms of oral sex percentage, multiple sex partner percentage, and female masturbation percentage.

- Male to Female ratio is 101:100.

- Highest abortion rate at 21%.

- Least gay sex percentage (3%) for men and almost nonexistent for women.

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Familismo

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- In Latin cultures, the strong cultural valuing of one's nuclear and extended family.

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Cross Species: Masturbation

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- Humans are not the only species to masturbate.

- Masturbation is found in many species of mammal, especially primates.

- Non-human apes perform cunnilingus on themselves.

- Red deer are known to masturbate using low growing vegetation.

- Female porcupine are known stimulate itself by holding a stick close to its genitals and then dragging it across the ground.

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Cross Species: Homosexuality

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- Homosexuality is found in other species besides humans.

- Anal sex was observed in primates.

- 9% of domestic sheep prefer other male sheep over female sheep for sex.

- Females in a number of primate species such as the Japanese Macaque and the Bonobo are known to mount each other.

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Cross Species: Sexual Signaling

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- Female primates engage in sexual signaling.

- Some species of female macaque are known to parade around males to sexually signal them.

- Female baboons, spider monkeys, and orangutans make eye contact as a way of sexual signaling.

- Female patas monkeys puff their cheeks and drool as a way of sexual signaling.

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Cross Species: Human Uniqueness

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- Sexual behavior in lower evolutionary developed species are controlled mostly by hormonal factors while sexual behavior in humans and higher evolutionary developed species such as primates are controlled by the brain and environmental factors.

- Little is unique to human sexuality, such being the complex cultural influences.

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Cross Species: Nonsexual Uses of Sexual Behavior

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- Sexual behaviors can symbolize an animals rank in hierarchy.

- Fighting is often seen especially in males of animal species to win over or impress possible mates.

- Sex is sometimes used in animals and humans to mark the end of a hostility.

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Sexual Health

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- A state of physical, emotional, mental, and social well-being in relation to sexuality.

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Sexual Rights

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- Basic, inalienable rights regarding sexuality, both positive and negative, such as the rights to reproductive self-determination, sexual expression, and freedom from sexual abuse and violence.

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Sociobiology

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- The application of evolutionary biology to understanding the social behavior of animals, including humans.

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Evolution

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- A theory that all living things have acquired their present forms through gradual changes in their genetic endowment over successive generations.

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Natural Selection

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- A process in nature resulting in greater rates of survival of those plants and animals that are adapted to their environment.

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Parental Investment

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- The behavior and resources invested in offspring to achieve survival and reproductive success of their offspring.

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Sexual Selection

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- A specific type of selection that create differences between males and females.

- Includes competition within one's gender and the choice of preference of a characteristics of a mate.

- Critics include the preference in the decline of waist size.

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Evolutionary psychology

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- The of psychological mechanism that have been shaped by natural selection such as money, fitness, will to provide.

- Critics include the wide variety of preferences in one culture as well as in other cultures.

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Psychoanalytic Theory

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- A psychological theory originated by Sigmund Freud containing the basic assumption that part of the human personality is unconscious.

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Libido

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- In Psychoanalytical Theory, the term for sex energy or sex drive.

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Id

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- According to Freud, the part of the personality containing libido.

- It is present at birth and operates on the pleasure principle and thus can be irrational.

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Ego

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- According to Freud, the part of the personality that helps the person have realistic, rational interactions.

- Based on reality principle to keep the id in line.

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Superego

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- According to Freud, the part of the personality containing the conscience.

- Operates on idealism, the values and ideals of society that we learn.

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Erogenous Zones

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- Areas of the body particularly sensitive to sexual stimulation.

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Oedipus Complex

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- According to Freud, the sexual attraction of a little boy for his mother.

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Electra Complex

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- According to Freud, the sexual attraction of a little girl for her mother.

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Stages of Psychosexual Development

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- Oral Stage: The first stage from birth to about 1 years old. The child's chief pleasure is derived from sucking and stimulating the lips and mouth.

- Anal Stage: The second stage, derived approximately in the second year of life. The child's chief interest is on elimination of waste.

- Phallic Stage: The third stage, from year 3 to perhaps 5 or 6, the child is interested in the penis and male children derives great pleasure in masturbation and female children begins to envy the penis. The Electra and Oedipus Complex derives at this stage.

- Latency: The fourth stage, a prolonged period after the third stage where the child's sexual impulses are repressed until adolescence. This stage is criticized because newer studies show that children still engage in behavior with sexual components.

- Genital Stage: The fifth and last stage, sexual urges reawaken with the onset of puberty, the sexual urges combine all genital, oral, and anal to promote biological function.

- Freud states that people do not always mature from one stage to the next as they should and remain permanently fixed, telltale signs such as nail biting and cigarette smoking being indicators of what stage they stopped progressing, such as in this case, the oral.

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Evaluation of Psychoanalytic Theory

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- Criticized because most of the components of the psychoanalytic theory cannot be evaluated since it deals with the subconscious.

- New research in neuropsychoanalysis through MRI scans indicate that activity in the prefrontal area of the brain contains bizarre imagery generated by the limbic and postcortial regions.

- In REM sleep, there is a reduction of activity from the ego and vivid and bizarre dreams are associated with the id.

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Repression

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- A defensive act that preventing certain information from becoming known, or motivated forgetting.

- Neural inhibition triggered by social factors could however account for repression.

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Oedipus Complex

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- Derived from the Greek myth of a man who killed his father and married his mother.

- According to Freud, a boy in the phallic stage grows a sexual attraction for his mother and thus views his father as a rival and hates him. As hostility grows, he develops castration anxiety which grows so great that he stops desiring his mother and shifts to taking his father's role.

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Electra Complex

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- Begins with the realization of a girl in the phallic stage with the trauma that she has no penis and suffers penis envy.

- She begins to envy the father and grows incestuous desires to be impregnated by him to substitute for the unobtainable penis.

- Because girls will not have castration anxiety, women grow to be less mature than men.

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Castration Anxiety

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- Part of the Oedipus complex.

- The irrational fear of a boy in the phallic stage that his father will cut off his penis.

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Penis Envy

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- Part of the Electra Complex.

- The envy for a penis in a girl during the phallic stage of development.

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Womb Envy

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- Coined by Karen Horney (1926 - 1973) in response to her view of Freud's term of penis envy.

- Men's envy to have a womb.

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Learning Theory

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- The theory that states that human sexual behavior, in some part, is learned.

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Classical Conditioning

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- The learning process in which a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus that reflexively elicits an unconditioned response.

- Eventually the conditioned stimulus will evoke the response.

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Operant Conditioning

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- The process of changing the frequency of a behavior (the operant) by following it with positive reinforcement which will make the behavior frequent or through punishment, which will make the behavior less frequent in the future.

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Behavior Modification

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- A set of operant conditioning techniques used to modify human behavior.

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Extinction

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- The process of repeatedly pairing a behavior with an aversive stimulus, leading to a decline in the frequency of behavior.

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Olfactory Aversion Therapy

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- Problematic behavior is punished using an aversive stimulus stimulus to decline the frequency of the behavior or even cause it to extinction.

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Social Learning

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- Somewhat of a complex form of learning therapy.

- Based on principals of operant conditioning.

- Follows two processes: imitation and identification to mimic social sexual behavior.

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Self-Efficacy

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- A sense of lacking or competence at performing an activity.

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Social Exchange Theory

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- A theory based on the principle of reinforcement, that assumes that people will choose actions that maximizes results and minimizes costs.

- States that humans are hedonistic.

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Cognitive Theory

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- The term was developed around the 1980's and 1990's.

- The theory that evaluates thoughts and perceptions to treat unwanted results.

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Schema

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- General knowledge or framework that a person has about a particular topic such as stereotypes and labels.

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Gender Schema Theory

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- The term was coined by Sandra Bem in 1981.

- The theory that humans comprise a cognitive structure consisting a set of attributes that we associate with females such as behaviors, personality, or appearance.

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Influence of Society on Sexual Behavior

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- Three basic assumptions that underlie social influence on sexual behavior in humans are:

1. Every society regulates sexuality of its members

2. Basic institutions such as religion and family affect the rules of governing sexuality in that society.

3. Appropriateness and inappropriateness of a particular sexual behavior depends on the culture.

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Factors that Determine Sexual Behavir

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- Economy

- Family

- Religion

- Medicine

- Law

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Procreational Ideology

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- The view that sex is only legitimate for the goal of obtaining an offspring and not for pleasure.

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Relational Ideology

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- The belief that extramarital sex is permissible if the context of the relationship was a loving one.

- The term was popularized in the 1970's.

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Socialization

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- Teaching children the appropriate norms of behavior.

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Therapeutic Ideology

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- The idea that a wide range of social and individual problems require medical treatment.

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Medicalization of Sexuallity

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- The process by which certain sexual behaviors or conditions are defined in terms of health and illness, and problematic experiences or practices are given medical treatment.

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Symbolic Interaction Theory

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- A theory based on the premise that human nature and the social order are products of communication among people.

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Sexual Scripts

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- The outcome of Symbolic Interaction Theory that sexual behavior is fundamentally scripted like a play in a theater.

- Most scripts involve meeting a girl, taking her out to dinner, then watching a movie, then taking her home. Another example would be kissing, then foreplay, then oral, and finally intercourse.

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Vulva

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- The collective term for the external genitals of the female.

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Clitoris

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- A highly sensitive sexual organ in the female; the glans is in front of the vaginal entrance, and the rest of the clitoris extends deeper into the body.

- It is homologous to the male penis.

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Homologous Structures

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- Organs or structures which developed from similar tissue before birth.

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Mons Pubis

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- The fatty pad of tissue under the pubic hair.

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Outer Lips

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- Rounded pads of fatty tissue lying on either side of the vaginal entrance.

- Also called Labia Majora.

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Inner Lips

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- Also called Labia Minora.

- Thin folds of skin lying on either side of the vaginal entrance.

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Bartholin Glands

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- Two tiny glands located on either side of the vaginal entrance.

- They have no significant function but are areas of interest because they sometimes get infected.

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Fourchette

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- The area where the inner lips come together behind the vaginal opening.

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Perineum

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- The area of skin between the vaginal opening and the anus.

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Introitus

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- The vaginal opening.

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Urethra

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- The tube through which urine passes from the bladder and out the body.

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Hymen

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- A thin membrane that may partially cover the vaginal entrance.

- There are several types of hymens.

- In many cultures, the intact hymen is believed to represent a girl's chastity.

- The myth that an intact hymen indicates virginity is not necessarily true as a hymen can tear from sports and a hymen can regain its form after sex.

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Vagina

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- The tube-shaped organ in the female into which the penis is inserted during coitus and through which a baby passes during birth.

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Vesticular Bulbs

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- Erectile tissue running under the inner lips the size of a pea pod.

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Layers of the Vaginal Walls

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1. Vaginal Mucosa: The inner layer of the vagina and consists o a mucous layer similar in texture to the inner lining of the mouth.

2. Middle layer is muscular.

3. Outer layer forms a covering.

- Most of the nerve endings for sexual arousal are located in the first 1/3 of the vagina.

- The vaginal walls are very elastic.

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Pelvic Floor Muscles

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- A set of muscles surrounding the vagina, the urethra, and the anus.

- Contains the Pubococcygeus Muscle.

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Pubococcygeus Muscle

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- A muscle located around the vaginal entrance.

- Prone to stretching during childbirth.

- This muscle can be exercised as recommended by sex therapists.

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Skene's Gland

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- The female prostate.

- Lies between the wall of the urethra and the wall of the vagina.

- Evidence indicates it secretes fluid biochemically similar to male prostate fluid.

- Many find this region an area of special erotic sensitivity and thus dubbed the "G-Spot".

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Uterus

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- The organ in the female in which the fetus develops.

- Consists of the cervix which is the opening to the vagina, the main body, and the fundus which is the top.

- The os is the narrow gap through the cervix.

- Consists of three layers: endometrieum, myometrium, and the perimetrium.

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Fallopian Tubes

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- The tubes extending from the uterus to the ovary.

- Also known as the oviducts.

- They are narrow and lined with tiny moving hair called cilia.

- Its function is to act a a pathway by which eggs travel down the uterus.

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Infundibulum

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- The part of the fallopian tubes closest to the ovaries that curve around it.

- Egg fertilization occurs here.

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Fimbriae

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- Numerous finger-like projections that extend toward the ovary.

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Ovaries

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- Two organs in the female connected indirectly on either end of the fallopian tube that produce eggs and sex hormones.

- Contains follicles.

- Egg is released from the follicles into the body cavity where it is swept up by the fimbriae and moved through the body cavity through the cilia.

- Females have 1 million eggs.

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Areola

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- The dark are surrounding the nipple.

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Nipple

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- The protrusion to here the milk ducts open.

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Penis

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- The male external sexual organ, which functions both in sexual activity and in urination.

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Glans

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- The tip or head of the penis.

- Most sensitive region of the penis.

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Urethral Opening

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- Also known as the meatus.

- The opening through where semen and urine are released.

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Shaft

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- The main body of the penis.

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Corpora Cavernosa

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- Two spongy bodies running the length of the top of the penis.

- When aroused, it fills with blood and works with the Corpus Spongiosum to create an erection.

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Corpus Spongioum

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- A spongy body running the underside of the penis.

- When aroused, it fills with blood and works alongside the Corpora Cavernosa to cause an erection.

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Foreskin

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- The layer of skin covering the glans or tip of the penis in uncircumcised males.

- Also known as the prepuce.

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Tyson's Glands

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- Small glands that produce smegma, which is cheesy in texture.

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Circumcision

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- Surgical removal of the foreskin of the penis.

- Mostly cultural and religious traditions influences this but also holds health and hygiene benefits such as cleanliness, decrease chance of STD's, and rite of passage in many cultures.

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Supercision

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- Also known as superincision.

- A form of male genital cutting where a slit is made the length of the foreskin on top.

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Subincision

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- A form of male genital cutting where a slit is cut on the lower side of the penis across the length.

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Scrotum

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- The pouch of skin that contains the testes.

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Testes

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- The pair of glands in the scrotum that manufacture sperm and sex hormones.

- Also known as gonads.

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Seminiferous Tubules

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- Tubes in the testes that manufacture and store sperm through a process called spermatogenesis.

- They are a series of long threadlike tubes curled up and packed densely so that if stretched out, would stretch several hundred feet from one end to the other.

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Interstitial Cells

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- Cells in the testes that manufacture testosterone.

- Located in the connective tissue in the seminiferous tubules close to blood vessels.

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Cremasteric Reflex

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- Reflexes caused by contraction and expanion of the cremaster muscle connecting from the scrotum to the body wall.

- Helps control the testes temperatures that are harmful for sperm.

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Sperm Maturation

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1. At the earliest stage, the cell is called a spermatogonium.

2. It then becomes a spermatocyte (primary and secondary).

3. Afterwards it becomes a spermatid.

4. Finally it fully matures to a spermatozoan, or sperm.

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Sperm

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- The male reproductive cell capable of fertilizing an egg.

- Average ejaculate contains 200 million sperm cells.

- Mature sperm are about 60 mm in length.

- They carry 23 chromosomes in the head.

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Rete Testes

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- A converging network of tubes on the surface of the testis towards the top where sperm made in the seminiferous tubules pass through.

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Epididymis

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- A highly coiled tube located on the edge of the testis, where sperm are stored for about 6 weeks to mature.

- About 20 ft in length.

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Vas Deferens

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- The tube through which sperm pass on their way from the testes and epididymis, out of the scrotum, and into the urethra.

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Ejaculatory Duct

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- The duct that opens into the urethra.

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Seminal Vesicles

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- Two sac-like structures that lie above the prostate and produce about 60% of seminal fluid.

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Prostate

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- The gland in the male that produces 40% of the seminal fluid.

- Located under the bladder.

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Cowper's Gland

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- Located under the prostate and empties into the urethra.

- Creates a clear alkaline fluid during arousal that is secreted into the urethra which helps neutralize acidity in the urethra and may contain stray sperm.

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Breast Cancer

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- Second most common cancer affecting women.

- 5% o 10% of breast cancer in America are due to genetic factors.

- Men who develop breast cancer are also more prone to developing prostate cancer.

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Lumpsectomy

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- A surgical treatment for breast cancer in which only the lump and a mall bit of surrounding tissue are removed.

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Radical Masectomy

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- A surgical treatment for breast cancer in which the entire breast, as well as underlying muscles and lymph nodes, is removed.

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Hysterectomy

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- Surgical removal of the uterus.

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Prenatal Period

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- The time from conception to birth.

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Hormones

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- Chemical substance secreted by the endocrine glands into the bloodstream.

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Testosterone

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- A hormone secreted by the testes in males.

- Present in low levels in females.

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Androgens

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- The group of male sex hormones.

- Includes the testosterone.

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Estrogens

Back 144

- The group of female sex hormones.

Front 145

Progesterone

Back 145

- A sex hormone secreted by the ovaries.

Front 146

Pituitary Gland

Back 146

- A small endocrine gland located on the lower side of the brain below the hypothalamus.

- It is most vital in regulating levels of sex hormones.

Front 147

Hypothalamus

Back 147

- A small region of the brain that is important in regulating many body functions including the functioning of sex hormones.

- Regulates the pituitary and responsible also for eating drinking, and sexual behavior.

Front 148

Follicle-Stimulating Syndrome (FSH)

Back 148

- A hormone secreted by the pituitary.

- Stimulates the follicle development in females and sperm production in males,

Front 149

Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

Back 149

- A hormone secreted by the pituitary.

- Regulates estrogen secretion and ovum development in females and sperm production in males.

Front 150

GnRH (Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone)

Back 150

- A hormone secreted by the hypothalamus that regulates the pituitary's selection of gonad-stimulating hormones.

Front 151

HPG Axis

Back 151

- Hypothalamus-pituitary-releasing-gonad axis.

- The negative feedback loop that regulates sex-hormone production.

Front 152

Inhibin

Back 152

- A hormone secreted by the testes and ovaries called Sertoli cells that regulate FSH levels.

Front 153

Prolactin

Back 153

- A pituitary hormone that stimulates milk production by the mammary glands.

Front 154

Oxytocin

Back 154

- It is also known as the "snuggle chemical" because it promotes affectionate bonding.

- A pituitary hormone that stimulates milk ejection from the nipples and contractions of the uterus during childbirth.

Front 155

Prenatal Sexual Differentiation

Back 155

- During the time of egg fertilization, the chromosomes in the fertilized egg will determine XX for female and XY for male.

- Undifferentiated homologous genital structures divides to become either male or female sex organs.

- The Y gene carries less information, only about 80 genes, compared to the X chromosomes, which carry 1090.

- Males start first stages of development from 7 weeks and turns gonads into testes.

-Females start the first stages of development from 13 weeks and turns gonads into ovaries.

Front 156

Klinefelter's Syndrome

Back 156

- The result of atypical chromosomal complements.

- XXY, The genetic male has an extra X chromosome.

- As a result, testes are abnormal, sperm is not produced, and testosterone levels are low.

Front 157

Mullerian Ducts

Back 157

- Ducts found in both male and female fetuses.

- Degenerates in males.

- In females, they develop to become the fallopian tubes, the uterus, and the upper part of the vagina.

Front 158

Wolffian Ducts

Back 158

- Ducts found in both male and female fetuses.

- Degenerates in females.

- In males, they develop to become the epididymis, the vas deferens, and the ejaculatory duct.

Front 159

SRY

Back 159

- Self Determining Region.

- A gene found on the Y chromosome.

- Causes the manufacturing of a substance called the testis-determining factor (TDF).

Front 160

Endocrine Disruptors

Back 160

- Chemicals in the environment that affect the endocrine system and the biological functioning and behavior of animals, including humans.

Front 161

Cryptorchidism

Back 161

- A condition where the testes has not descended to the scrotum at the time of birth as they should during prenatal development.

- This condition occurs in 3% of males.

- Normal testes should descend fully to the scrotum 7 months post conception.

Front 162

Inguinal Hernia

Back 162

- A condition where the inguinal canal does not close off completely.

- It may reopen later in life.

- It may create a condition where loops of the intestine may enter the scrotum.

- This condition can be treated by simple surgery.

Front 163

Cultural Relativism

Back 163

To view other culture's behavior and beliefs as normal according to standards of culture in which the behavior exists.

Front 164

Ethnography

Back 164

- Descriptive study of cultures.

Front 165

Reiss's Theory

Back 165

- The theory stating that sex is important in all cultures and individuals because pleasure is derived from sex and it also allows self disclosure.

Front 166

Female Genital Cutting

Back 166

- Also known as female circumcision or female genital mutilation.

- Prevalent practice in Islamic countries in regions such as the Middle East, Africa, and South Asia.

- Affects 100 million women worldwide.

- Three types of female genital cutting: clitoridectomy, excision, and infibulation.

- Performed to girls 5 to 10 years and sometimes 15 years of age.

- Usually performed without proper or sanitary tools or environment.

- Currently, 20% of the world's female genital cuttings are now performed by health professionals.

Front 167

Clitoridectomy

Back 167

- Partial or total removal of the clitoris.

Front 168

Excision

Back 168

- Partial or total removal of the clitoris and inner lips.

Front 169

Infibulation

Back 169

- Removal of the clitoris, inner lips, parts of the outer lips, and then stitched together along the edges of the outer lips.

Front 170

Phimosis

Back 170

- A condition in males where the foreskin is too long and narrow at the opening to retract over the penis during an erection.

Front 171

Hormonal Irregularities

Back 171

- CAH: Congenital Adrenal Hyperplaia. A condition that occurs in females where only the external genitalia is effected to look masculine.

- AIS: Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome. A condition that occurs in external male genitalia which feminizes the parts.

Front 172

Intersex

Back 172

- Sex chromosome disorder.

- Includes Kleinfelter's Syndrome (XXY) and Turner Syndrome (XO).

Front 173

Brain Differtiation

Back 173

- Primary sex-differentiated area is the hypothalamus, in particular the preoptic area.

- It determines the estrogen sensitivity of certain cells called estrogen receptors in the -hypothalamus.

- If testosterone is present during fetal development, then the estrogen receptors become insensitive to estrogen and vice versa.

Front 174

Analogous Organs

Back 174

- Organs in the male and female that have similar functions.

Front 175

Sexual Distinguishment

Back 175

1. Chromosomal Gender

2. Gonadal Gender

3. Prenatal Hormonal Gender

4. Prenatal and Neonatal Brain Differentiation

5. Internal Organ

6. External Genital Appearance

7. Pubertal Hormonal Gender

8. Assigned Gender

9. Gender Identity

Front 176

Chromosomal Gender

Back 176

- XX in females.

- XY in males.

Front 177

Gonadal Gender

Back 177

- Gonads become testes in males.

- Gonads become ovaries in females.

Front 178

Prenatal Hormonal Gender

Back 178

- Testosterone and MIS in males but none in females at birth.

Front 179

Internal Organ Gender Distinguishment

Back 179

- Fallopian tubes, uterus, and upper vagina in females.

- Prostate, vas deferens, and seminal vesicle in males.

Front 180

External Genital Appearance Distinction

Back 180

- Females have clitoris, inner and outer lips, and a vaginal opening.

- Males have a penis and a scrotum.

Front 181

Assigned Gender

Back 181

- The announcement at birth pronouncing the gender of the child.

- It is based on the appearance of the genitals.

Front 182

Gender Identity

Back 182

- The person's internal sense of masculinity or femininity.

Front 183

Disorders of Sex Development (DSD)

Back 183

- A new term for intersex conditions.

Front 184

Adolescence

Back 184

- Period of development that bears some relationship to puberty.

Front 185

Puberty

Back 185

- The time during which there is sudden enlargement and maturation of the gonads, other genitalia, and secondary sex characteristics so that the individual becomes capable of sexual reproduction.

Front 186

Menarche

Back 186

- The first menstruation.

- Occurs around 12 years of age.

- Not yet capable of pregnancy until ovulation begins.

Front 187

Leptin

Back 187

- Hormone related to the onset of puberty.

Front 188

Puberty in Girls

Back 188

- Growth of breasts and pubic hair begins at age 9 to 10.

- Body growth starts 9.5 to 14.5 years of age.

- Menarche at 12 years of age.

- Oil and sweat producing glands, the onset of acne as well as underarm hair growth begins about 2 years after the onset of growth of pubic hair.

Front 189

Puberty in Boys

Back 189

- Growth of testes and scrotum begin around age 9 to 1.

- Pubic hair growth begins at age 11 to 12.

- Body growth begins at age 10.5 to 16

- Penis growth and change in voice starts at age 11 to 14.5

- Oil adn sweat producing glands and onset of acne as well as facial and underarm hair begins around 2 years after pubic hair growth.

Front 190

Adrenal Glands

Back 190

- Endocrine glands located just above the kidneys.

- Major producers of androgens for females.

Front 191

Adrenarche

Back 191

- The maturation of the adrenal glands in childhood.

- Results in increased secretion of androgens.

Front 192

Menstrual Cycle

Back 192

- Cycles from functioning levels of sex hormones which produce changes in ovaries and uterus which is regulated by the HPG axis and by means of the negative feedback loop.

- Humans and select ape and monkey species are unique in having a menstrual cycle as other species follow a estrous cycle.

- Averages around 28 day cycles.

Front 193

Phases of Menstrual Cycle

Back 193

1. Follicular Phase

2. Ovulation

3. Luteal Phase

4. Menstruation

Front 194

Follicular Phase

Back 194

- The first phase of the menstrual cycle.

- In this duration, an egg matures in preparation for ovulation.

- Affected by FHS.

- Occurs from day 1 to 5.

Front 195

Ovulation

Back 195

- Second phase of menstruation.

- The follicle ruptures, releasing an egg from the ovaries.

- Occurs day 5 to 14.

- Estrogen rises to a high level, prohibiting FHS production and stimulates the hypothalamus to produce GnRH which causes the pituitary to produce LH.

Front 196

Luteal Phase

Back 196

- Third stage in menstruation.

- Occurs after ovulation from day 15 to 28.

- The follicle under stimulation from the LH turns into a corpus luteum which secretes progesterone, inhibiting the pituitary's LH secretion and as LH levels declines, the corpus luteum degenerates.

Front 197

Menstruation

Back 197

- Final phase of the menstrual cycle.

- Occurs after the luteal phase around day 28.

- Endometrieum of the uterus is sloughed off in a menstrual discharge (the period).

Front 198

Corpus Luteum

Back 198

- Mass of cells of the follicle remaining after ovulation.

- Secretes progesterone.

Front 199

Proliferative Phase

Back 199

- Occurs during the follicular phase of menstruation.

- The inner lining of the uterus or endometrium is stimulated by high levels of estrogen, causing the uterus to grow, thicken, and form glands that will later secrete nutrients to nourish the embryo.

Front 200

Secretory Phase

Back 200

- Occurs after ovulation and during the luteal phase.

- The progesterone secreted by the corpus luteum stimulates the glands of the endometrium to start secreting nourishing substances.

- If there is no fertilized egg to nourish, the inner lining will shed and flush out during menstruation.

Front 201

Mittelschmerz

Back 201

- A phenomenon where some women report that they can feel themselves ovulate.

- Described as a cramping sensation on both sides of their abdomen.

Front 202

Anovulatory Cycle

Back 202

- Menstruation without ovulation.

- Occurs twice a year in women in their twenties and are fairly common in women in their forties and girls during puberty.

Front 203

Basal Body Temperature (BBT)

Back 203

- A method of testing menstrual cycle and timing pregnancies.

- Taken with a thermometer first thing in the morning.

- Temperature is low during follicular phase through ovulation and 0.4 to 1 degree Fahrenheit higher during menstruation.

Front 204

Toxic Shock Cycle

Back 204

- Caused by leaving a tampon in for too long which causes infections from certain species of staff bacteria.

Front 205

Dysmenorrhea

Back 205

- Painful menstruation.

- Caused by cramps from over-constriction of the uterus.

- Having an orgasm is a known remedy.

Front 206

Amenorrhea

Back 206

- Can lead to loss in body fat.

- Caused by the absence of menstruation.

Front 207

Endometriosis

Back 207

- A condition in which the endometrium grows abnormally outside the uterus.

- Symptom is unusually painful periods with excessive bleeding.

Front 208

Prostaglandis

Back 208

- Chemicals secreted by the uterus that cause the uterine muscles to contract.

- Likely the cause of a painful menstruation.

Front 209

Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS)

Back 209

- A combination of severe physical and psychological symptoms such a depression and irritability occurring just before menstruation.

- Present evidence does not fully support this but on average, women do experience fluctuation of mood during menstruation.

- There is a great deal of variation between the expression or intensity of PMS.

Front 210

Mood Cycle for Menstruation

Back 210

- Positive mood around ovulation.

- Negative mood before menstruation.

- Small minor shift in mood.

Front 211

Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder (PMDD)

Back 211

- A tentative diagnostic category in the DSM, characterized by symptoms such a sadness, irritability, and anxiety in the week before menstruation.

Front 212

Hyaluronidase

Back 212

- An enzyme secreted through the head of the sperm that allows one sperm to penetrate the egg.

Front 213

Zygote

Back 213

- A fertilized egg.

Front 214

Stages of Conception

Back 214

1. Egg is released and travels down the fallopian tube.

2. Sperm reaches egg in fallopian tube, releases hyaluronidase, and enters egg.

3. First two to eight weeks of development is called the embryo and then afterwards, it is called the fetus.

Front 215

Placenta

Back 215

- An organ formed on the wall of the uterus through which the fetus receives oxygen and nutrients and gets rid of waste products.

Front 216

Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG)

Back 216

- A hormone secreted by the placenta.

- It is the hormone detected in home pregnancy tests.

Front 217

Umbilical Cord

Back 217

- The tube that connects the fetus to the placenta.

Front 218

Amniotic Fluid

Back 218

- The watery fluid surrounding a developing fetus in the uterus.

Front 219

Embryo Support System

Back 219

- Contains:

1. Amniotic Sac: Protects baby.

2. Placenta: Provides nourishment.

3. Umbilical cord: connects baby to placenta.

Front 220

Prenatal Development by Semester

Back 220

- 1st Trimester: Internal organs form (0 -13 weeks).

- 2nd Trimester: Movement, eyes open, baby flips upside down, sensitive to light and sound, heartbeat detected (13 - 26 weeks).

- 3rd Trimester: Rapid growth and fat deposits form (week 28 - birth).

Front 221

Pregnancy Tests

Back 221

Home Tests:

- 16% false positive.

- High rate of false negatives.

Lab Tests:

- 98% to 99% accurate.

Front 222

Signs of Pregnancy

Back 222

- Presumptive: nausea, breast tenderness, etc.

- Probable: Positive pregnancy test result.

- Positive: Fetal heartbeat, movement, detecting fetal skeleton by ultrasound.

Front 223

Sex During Pregnancy

Back 223

- Safe to perform but sex drive will decrease from the first trimester and increasingly more through the third trimester.

Front 224

Beta-hCG Radio-Immunoassay

Back 224

- Test assesses the presence of beta-hCG in a blood sample.

- More reliable and more expensive than urine tests.

Front 225

Breech Presentation

Back 225

- When a baby protrudes feet first during delivery.

Front 226

Stillbirth

Back 226

- Delivery of a dead fetus, especially after the 28th week of gestation.

- Associated with high stress levels at week 30.

Front 227

Edema

Back 227

- Excessive fluid retention and swelling.

Front 228

Colostrum

Back 228

- A watery substance that is secreted from the breasts at the end of pregnancy and during the first few days after delivery.

Front 229

Braxton-Hicks Contractions

Back 229

- Contractions of the uterus during pregnancy that are not part of labor.

Front 230

Couvade Syndrome

Back 230

- The symptoms men experience as a effect from their pregnant partners that cause indigestion, nausea, change in appetite, gastritis, and headaches.

Front 231

Teratogen

Back 231

- A substance that produces defects in a fetus.

- Includes tobacco, recreational drugs, some antibiotics, anti-histamines, marijuana, alcohol, etc.

Front 232

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

Back 232

- Serious growth deficiency and malformations in the child of a mother who abuses alcohol during pregnancy.

Front 233

Parturition

Back 233

- Whole process of childbirth.

- Consists of 3 stages of labor.

Front 234

First Stage of Labor

Back 234

- Begins with early first stage of labor defined by regular uterine contractions and causes the cervix to dilate. Occurs in regular 15 to 20 minute cycles in periods of 30 seconds to a minute. Lasts from 2 to 24 hours, normally being 12 to 15 hours in first pregnancy and 8 hours in future pregnancies.

- Effacement of the cervix.

- Late first stage is defined by dilation of cervix to 5 to 8 cm and finally to 8 to 10 cm during transition phase, which is difficult.

- Contractions are stronger and longer and women typically report pain and exhaustion.

- At the late first stage, the woman is told to go tot the hospital when contractions are 4 to 5 minutes apart.

Front 235

Second Stage of Labor

Back 235

- The stage during which the baby moves out through the vagina and is delivered.

Front 236

Third Stage of Labor

Back 236

- The stage during afterbirth in which the placenta is expelled.

Front 237

Effacement

Back 237

- Thinning out of the cervix during labor.

Front 238

Dilation

Back 238

- Opening of the cervix during labor.

Front 239

Transition

Back 239

- The difficult part of labor at the end of the first stage, during which the cervix dilates to 8 to 10 cm.

Front 240

Episiotomy

Back 240

- An incision made in the skin behind the vagina to allow easier delivery of the baby.

- Relieves pressure during childbirth and allows cleaner cut, prevents impaired sexual function, and reduces rate of prolapsed bladder.

- Practiced commonly in the 1930' and increased to 60% by the 1960's, 55% by the 1990's and declined to 25-30% by the 2000's.

- Risks more pain, healing complications, and pelvic floor defect.

Front 241

Transverse Presentation

Back 241

- Sideways position of the baby during delivery.

- Very harmful and possibly fatal for baby and mother.

- Less than 1% chance of happening.

Front 242

Lamaze Method

Back 242

- A method of "prepared" childbirth involving relaxation and controlled breathing.

Front 243

Types of Childbirth

Back 243

- Epidural: Use of epidural anesthesia to decrease pain but risks sometimes outweigh benefit.

- Vaginal: Normal delivery through the vagina.

- Cesarean Section: Also known as C-Section, it is the method of delivering a baby surgically by an incision in the abdomen.

Front 244

Primipara

Back 244

- A woman having her first baby.

Front 245

Postpartum Depression

Back 245

- Mild to moderate depression in women following the birth of a baby.

- Usually occurs two to three weeks postpartum but sometimes after delivery.

Front 246

Postpartum Psychosis

Back 246

- Severe disturbance which include symptoms as restlessness, irritability, and sleep disturbance.

Front 247

Ectopic Surgery

Back 247

- A pregnancy where a the fertilized egg implants somewhere other than the uterus.

Front 248

Pseudocyesis

Back 248

- False pregnancy, in which the woman displays signs of pregnancy but is not pregnant.

- Phenomenon believed to be caused by placebo.

Front 249

Preeclampsia

Back 249

- A serious disease of pregnancy marked by high blood pressure, severe edema, and proteinuria.

Front 250

Aminocentesis

Back 250

- A test done to determine whether a fetus has any birth defects.

- Conducted by inserting a fine tube into the woman's abdomen in order to obtain a sampe of amniotic fluid.

Front 251

Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS)

Back 251

- A technique for prenatal diagnosis of birth defects.

- Involves taking a sample of cells from the chorionic villus and analyzing them.

Front 252

Miscarriage

Back 252

- The termination of a pregnancy before the fetus is viable as a result of natural causes unlike medical intervention, or spontaneous abortion.

Front 253

Infertility

Back 253

- A woman's inability to conceive and give birth to a living child or a man's inability ti impregnate a woman.

Front 254

Artificial Insemination

Back 254

- A procedure in which sperm are placed into the vagina, fallopian tubes, or uterus by means other than sexual intercourse.

Front 255

Embryo Transfer

Back 255

- A procedure in which an embryo is transferred from the uterus of one woman into the uterus of another.

Front 256

In Vitro Fertilization (IVF)

Back 256

- A procedure in which an egg is fertilized by a sperm cell in a lab dish.

Front 257

GIFT

Back 257

- Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer.

- A procedure in which sperm and eggs are collected then inserted together into the fallopian tube.

Front 258

Cloning

Back 258

- The reproduction of an individual from a single cell taken from a "donor" or "parent".