Human Sexuality Exam 2

Front 1

sexual conflict definition

Back 1

one person interferes w/ the achievement of the goal of another person - goal being reproductive success

NOT ADAPTIVE - a by-product of what M & F look for & how they use sexual strategies

M & W are equipped with psychological solutions to the conflict

Front 2

basic sexual conflicts b/wn men and women

Back 2

1) women selectively withhold sex
2) men reluctant to give resources/commitment
3) women may mate with multiple partners but men want paternity assurance

Front 3

sexual overperception bias

Back 3

infer a state that's not there - men are more likely to make this mistake

psychology of men has evolved to minimize the costs of missed opportunities by assuming an interest that's not there

Front 4

commitment skepticism bias

Back 4

failing to infer a state that IS there - women do this more often

minimize costs of being duped by deceitful tactics AKA MEN

Front 5

differing perceptions about intent and reaction b/wn men & women

Back 5

men are more likely to attribute friendly behavior as sexy, while women will just see it as friendly

men assume women's psychology is like their own

Front 6

how and why men and women withhold sex

Back 6

women withhold sex to
1) assess commitment
2) avoid costs of sex (pregnancy, disease, etc)

men withhold sex in the form of emotion and resources
1) to assess sexual interest
2) to avoid over-investing

results in men complaining about possessiveness & dependency, women complain about emotional communication, time, and calling

Front 7

sexual harassment definition

Back 7

unwanted and unsolicited sexual attention

most harassers = men

most victims are young, attractive, single women b/wn 18-36 yrs old

women's perception depends on harasser's profile

Front 8

The number one reason for abuse as reported by M & F is _______

Back 8

jealousy

(remember Eminem and Rihanna video)

Front 9

examples/manifestations of jealous behavior

Back 9

violence
restricting contact w/other men/women
threats of violence
mate guarding - humans kinda do this, especially when she's ovulating

Front 10

Jealousy is exacerbated by 3 things:

Back 10

mate value mismatch - when they think they're not as valuable as their partner

emotional instability

history of abuse

Front 11

reasons for conugal dissolution (divorce) across cultures

Back 11

reason/number of societies/attributed to men/women

infidelity/88/54/2
infertility/75/12/30
maltreatment/54/46/0

elopement w/ lover and laziness also play factors

Front 12

Are all men united to control women?

Back 12

NO, because

men compete among other men

men form coalitions against M&W

no, it doesn't make sense :P

Front 13

rape is nearly _______ since in all cultures studied its present

Back 13

universal

Front 14

__/___ of men report that they might do rape if they wouldn't get caught

Back 14

1/3

Front 15

Theories about rape: Power theory

Back 15

reason: men want to dominate women

"rape is not about sex, its about pwr"

prediction 1: if rape is only about pr, expect women w/ the most pwr to be targeted

P2: unlikely to be caught
P3: pregnancy doesn't matter, neither would age (fertility fitness doesn't matter in who you target)
P4: all men can rape

Front 16

Theories about Rape: The Evolutionary Theory

Back 16

Reason: men have no other means of reproducing than by force

"rape IS about sex" - different from other forms of violence

a) adaptation hypothesis - "rapist is a loser" or "mixed strategy"
P1: pregnancy maters - if men using rape as strategy, it might be related to fitness
P2: perps have low mating success

b) byproduct hypothesis - not adaptive, related to something that IS adaptive. adaptation = sex drives in genders, which IS adaptive
P1: pregnancy matters
P2: all men might rape

Front 17

Coercive sex in other species

Back 17

a) conditional "mixed" strategy - as a last resort - scorpion flies
b)a by-product - of lowered threshold of arousal in men/of coercion in other areas
c) female selection - based on how coercive males are
d) sometimes coercive sex NEVER happens in a species

Front 18

scorpion flies and coercive sex

Back 18

1) nuptial gift of a dead insect OR
2) nuptial gift of saliva (less nutrients)

if she doesn't like the saliva, she might not have sex with him, which leads to

3) forced copulation

Front 19

characteristics of human rape

Back 19

-victims are of reproductive age
-non-consensual sex conception rates are higher than in consensual sex
-men are aroused by rape scenes
-rape occurs in non-westernized cultures
-women are rarely rapists
-women may have anti-rape defenses
-specific characteristics of perpetrators

Front 20

characteristics of rape perpetrators

Back 20

-insecure & hostile
-feel rejected, like women don't like them
-have sex earlier & have more partners than men who aren't rapists (adaptation hypothesis destroyed)
-do not commit other crimes (does not fit with pwr hypothesis)
-less aggressive overall

Front 21

Is every man a potential rapist? things that influence the chance of being a rapist:

Back 21

-wartime
-man's social background (hostile/abuse, marital discord b/wn themselves or their parents, rejection by women, hostility to women, gratification from domination, antisocial)

Front 22

conclusions about rape

Back 22

rape is a by-product of differences in arousal & sexual desire

activated by a hostile masculinity pattern

which makes promiscuity more likely

which makes coercive sex more likely

*rape is an interaction b/wn biology and the environment*

men are NOT genetically determined to rape

men have a choice to rape - predisposition doesn't justify the behavior

Front 23

True or False

A biological explanation for rape justifies rape as a sexual strategy

A biological explanation for spousal violence justifies men's violence towards women

Back 23

BOTH ARE FALSE

Rape is a combination of biology and the environment

Front 24

Importance of studying sex

Back 24

1) it is central to the human experience (relationships, identity, motivation)
2) it effects our health
3) there's a lot we don't know
4) there's a lot we know that's wrong: "size matters"

Front 25

Who studies sex and what are their questions?

Back 25

Biomedical Researchers
-how can we improve lives?
-how does the body work?

Sociologists
-how does society influence sexuality?

Activists
-how can we improve lives?

Anthropologists
-how does sexuality vary across culture?
-how is it universal?

Educators
-how can we solve sex-related problems?

Psychologists
-What is the individual experience of human sexuality?
-how can we make things better?
-health psychologists (birth control, how sexuality influences health)
-social
-developmental
-clinical
-endocrinologists
-neuroscience
-evolutionary

Front 26

Why we study sex

Back 26

-to improve health
-to improve sex lives
-to improve relationships
-to develop a moral identity
-to instill responsible decision making
-to instill tolerance
-to be better parents

Front 27

studying sex is about making people better, not about imposing a _______ ________, but to ________ _______

Back 27

moral agenda; alleviate discomfort

Front 28

psychopathia sexualis (1886)

Back 28

written by Richard von Kraft-Ebing, described "crazy" sexual behavior = "masturbation, fetishism, pedophilia, necrophilia, homosexuality"

Front 29

a history of changing sexual perceptions

Back 29

1846 - 1st diaphragm = 1st female contraception

1900s - studies in the psyc of sex by Freud; also Margaret Sanger founded planned parenthood

1920s - cars = privacy

1940s-50s - planned parenthood really took off + kinsey reports + G spot + Playboy

1960s - the Pill + Masters & Johnson sex research, stages of arousal

1970s - Roe v Wade + homosexuality removed from list of disorders + 1st conviction of a man raping his own wife

1980s - HIV

1990s - Clinton (define sex) + Viagra, Don't ask don't tell

2000s - will & grace + morning after pill + date rape drugs + same sex marriage + HPV vaccine

Front 30

challenges to sex research

Back 30

sex is an emotional topic
-embarrassment
-shame
-discomfort

sex has moral implications
-ppl aren't truthful

Front 31

how do we learn about sex?

Back 31

-the media
-parents
-personal experience - incredibly salient in forming sexual attitudes - abuse, date rape, etc
-folk knowledge & old wives tales
-religious authorities
-empiricism = facts + logic

Front 32

how do you study sex?

2 definitions

Back 32

1) case studies = close records & analysis of rare cases
-gives close inspection
-but not always generalizable

2) survey methodology = collecting info from volunteer respondents to assess beliefs, attitudes, knowledge & behavior

3) naturalistic observation (flirting)
4) participant observation (attitudes)
5) lab observation (masters & johnson)
6) by demonstrating correlational relationships (chance of contracting STI's positively correlated w/ crack cocaine use but STI's don't cause ppl to use crack cocaine) correlation does not equal causation
7) by demonstrating causal relationships - a true experiment

Front 33

elements of a good survey

memorize the definitions!

Back 33

should be reliable, valid & biased
-self-selection bias: volunteers may differ inherently from non-volunteers in their attitudes & behavior
-social desirability: individuals may answer in a way that is socially acceptable or culturally approved - avoid w/ anonymity
-generalizability: results may not generalize to everyone what your results say about your population

Good surveys need:
-a target population
-representative sample (convenience, random, volunteer)
-has a large sample
-has good questions

Front 34

How to create a true experiment

Back 34

Question/Hypothesis: Do foot rubs enhance sexual arousal?/Foot rubs enhance sexual arousal

Prediction: men & women who have received a foot rub, compared to M&W who have received a backrub, will be more aroused

select a group: get volunteers & don't give away the hypothesis when asking ppl to participate

assign two groups: experimental group = will get foot massage from current partner

control group = will get back rub from current partner

BONUS: the research for our questions are correlational research

then measure arousal after getting rubs and watching some porn

Front 35

the female reproductive system evolved as a ______ _______ to get them interested in sex or back into the rhythm after pregnancy

Back 35

jumpstart mechanism

Front 36

hormones definition

Back 36

chemical messengers released from endocrine cells to communicate w/ other cells

Front 37

phases of female reproductive cycle

Back 37

1) follicular phase (pre-ov)
-develop follicle: nourishes ova & grows over time then releases ova
2) ovulation: release from follicle
3) luteal phase (post-ov)
-active corpora lutea - like an organ used once a month, secretes its own hormones
4) fertilization or
5) pseudo pregnancy - the occurrence of a functional lutea in the absence of implantation (no pregnancy)

Front 38

2 types of ovulation

Back 38

Human
-spontaneous ovulation - nothing else outside the body causes ovulation. Our bodies use its own rhythm
-spontaneous pseudopregnancy
-copulation @ ovulation or anytime
-social; long-lived; few offspring

Other species
-induced ovulation (usually need presence of a male)
-spontaneous pseudopgrenancy
-solitary, short-lived, and many offspring

Front 39

hormones/structures in the female reproductive system

Back 39

the hypothalamus - governs lots of regulatory processes

FSH hormone - folicular stimulating hormone

LH - lutenizing hormone causes ovulation

Ova/follicle - estradiol & progesterone - get ready for implantation

Corpus Luteum - progesterone; job is to maintain uteran lining

progesterone inhibits FSH & LH and changes the cervical mucus

Front 40

the menstrual cycle

Back 40

1) FSH & LH go up during menses
2) follicle develops - estradiol & progesterone
3) uterus lining develops
4) surge in LH & FSH
5) ovulation
6) corpus luteum - releasing more estradiol & progesterone. Progesterone inhibits LH & FSH so ovulation can't occur
7) ovum enters fallopian tubes
8 a) fertilization occurs: implants into uterine wall & corpus lutea, PROG, HCG maintains progesterone
8 b) no fertilization occurs: progesterone levels drop, means the lining goes away and the inhibited hormones can produce again

Front 41

goals of our brain & body

Back 41

-signal reproductive information to the opposite sex
-minimize the costs of sex
-make sex efficient - unconscious processes
-have sex & like it - need sex drive, get it from hypothalamus
-organize appropriate sexual behavior

Front 42

we get our sexual behavior from the ______ _______ & ________ _____

Back 42

cerebral cortex; HPG axis

Front 43

purpose of the hypothalamus

Back 43

-ensures species typical behavior
-the four Fs - feeding, flight, fight and fucking
-biological rhythms (menses, etc)
-information from
*amygdala (houses emotions) & thalamus
*cerebral cortex (decision making)
*VMN = vomeronasal organ aka olfactory info, humans have two parts but the VMN doesn't work in us, in other animals VMN detects pheremones
*genitals
*reward circuit = dopamene

-all of these are used to orchestrate sexual behavior & hormone control

Front 44

importance of testosterone

Back 44

study with hypogonadal men (those who have low levels of testosterone), 3 groups - placebo, 100mg, 400mg, the 400 guys will have higher libido

-testosterone influences but does not CAUSE sex drive
-hormones influence the likelihood that a behavior will occur
-testosterone also influences women's libido, too

Front 45

sex drive in men

Back 45

-influenced by tesosterone threshold
-drugs & alcohol can affect T levels
-men have 10 times more T than women
-influenced by progestin, which lowers arousal & aggression

Front 46

how the male body minimizes the costs of sex

Back 46

-sperm production; must produce all the time
-penis can fracture - bundles of blood vessels and membranes can break so the penis is only erect when it needs to be
-nicotine effects erections since it constricts blood vessels
-ejaculate = 98% semen, 2% sperm
-the scrotum protects the testicles, which can be elevated or lowered by spermatic cord - regulate temp, prepare for ejaculation, fear response

Front 47

characteristics of ejaculate

Back 47

semen is alkaline - helps keep sperm alive & counteracts acidic vaginal tract

semen protects sperm - glucose and fructose = 37 cals in 2 tablespoons

bases and proteins and albumen - slick, slippery fluid

semen transports sperm

Front 48

sexual differentiation definition

Back 48

the developmental process of becoming male or female

(men and women share 99% of genes)

it's shaped by hormones (which produce physiological, morphological, and psychological differences) as well as culture

Front 49

how do you study sexual differentiation?

Back 49

1) non-human animals (you can separate babies from their mothers, injections)
*study genes and sociality (only when the dominate male leaves will a diff chicken b/cm the new rooster)
*mice - babies grow next to M/F or 2M & 2F - these in between embryos have higher or lower levels of hormones - 2M mice more interested in mating

2) Humans
*castrati = males been castrated to keep their voices high, affects their skeletal structure to shape their ribcage like that of a woman - effects sound production
*take away sources of hormones & ppl still have reg sex life

3)cross-cultural studies
*play difference

Front 50

chromosomes can produce sex-_____ traits (gene leads to a trait) and sex-______ traits (expression depends on the environment)

traits can be _______ (height) or ________ (color-blindness)

Back 50

linked; limited

continuous; dichotomous

Front 51

Why are men more prone to colorblindness?

Back 51

color-blindness is on the X chromosome but women have two X chromosomes, one is a back up

Front 52

sexual differentiation of sex organs

Back 52

1) Fetal gonad: 6-8wks
*all embryos have a bipotential germinal ridge - special tissue that could b/cm either sex
*SRY gene encodes for Testis Determining Factor - testes form.
*If no SRY - ovaries form

2) Internal Sex Organs
*all embryos have a dual duct system
*if ovaries or no gonads are present, Mullerian ON (girl stuff develops), Wolffian OFF
*If tests are present, mullerian inhibiting hormone, MIH, released, turns Mullerian OFF, testosterone turns Wolffian ON

the dual continuum is hormone dependent

3) external sex organs
*all embryos start w/ a urogenital sinus
-genital folds
-genital tubercle
-genital swellings
*no hormones
-tubercle - clitoris
-folds - labia
*hormones - androgens
-tubercle - penis
-folds - scrotum

single continuum - hormone-dependent

this continuum is gene dependent

Front 53

memorize fig ______ in textbook

Back 53

4.4

Front 54

notes about hormones

Back 54

1)organization - gonadal hormones organize & differentiate, occurs during a critical window

2)activation of system later on - gonadal hormones activate brain & tissues during puberty

Front 55

Tturner syndrome

Back 55

faulty or missing X - dysfunctional ovaries - don't produce proper hormones

treatment: hormone treatment at puberty

Front 56

exposure to androgens: endogenous/ exogenous

Back 56

endogenous - congenital adrenal hyperplasia (amped up levels of testosterone) -> androgens

women with this have masculanized genitalia - treatment w/ surgery

exogenous: steroids during pregnancy (DHT) - may be more likely to be lesbian

Front 57

testicular feminization mutation (TFM)

Back 57

-single base pair substitution on X chromosome - no androgen receptors
-XX females experience no effects
-XY males - female system shut down but male system never turned on

SRY - testes
testes - T & MIH

sexed as girls but don't menstruate
feel like girls, reportedly - genetically male but don't feel like that at all

Front 58

5 alpha reductase deficiency

Back 58

-no enzyme to convert testosterone to ADT - incomplete development of external genitalia
-males who don't have enzyme have ambiguous genitalia, raised as girls
-@ puberty, androgens masculinized genitalia
-raised as girls but feel like boys after puberty (guevedoche)

Front 59

sexual development anomalies

Back 59

a true hermaphrodite has both M & F goands - really rare, mostly ppl are

PSEUDOhermaphrodites - mismatch b/wn gonads and phenotype

Front 60

characteristics of homosexuality and behavior

Back 60

occurs cross-culturally (64%)
up to 23% women & 37% men report homosexual behavior

up to 10% men 4% W report exclusively homosexual

it is accepted as part of human behavior

it is part of culture - occurs in different contexts
*patron/client (Libya)
*mentoring (Melanesia)
*friendships (Tahiti)
*rites of passage (New Guinea boys give oral sex to older men)
*usually occurs during adolescence

Front 61

objections to same sex-pairbonding

Back 61

sometimes viewed negatively

unsacred sex

non-reproductive sex

poor parenting

narrowly defined gender roles for men

Front 62

sexual orientation definition

Back 62

stable, internal, enduring preference for one sex over the other (or both)

partly innate

Front 63

sexual preference definition

Back 63

the manifestation of a preference that is evident when given a choice

context dependent, can be measured by behavior
*behavior
*pairbonding - with who
*choice

can include celibacy as an orientation

Front 64

pairbonding definition

Back 64

the mutually beneficial, enduring relationship b/wn a pair of ppl/breeding pair of individuals

can include parenting, grooming, emotional ties, & other social behavior

Front 65

mixture of nature vs nurture leads to homosexuality: 4 factors

Back 65

1) genes
2) development
*hormones
*immunity to y-linked complex
3) experience - if raised w/ only same sex, then you'll have sex w/ them
4) social context - captive chinstrap penguin "and tango makes 3"

Front 66

what is the birth order effect in determining homosexuality?

Back 66

women develop immunity to the y complex after each boy, so the mixture of hormones changes and shapes the degree of masculinization of each boy

Front 67

why same-sex pairbonding? 8 reasons

Back 67

1) reduce INTRAsexual (b/wn men or women) conflict
2) form alliances (reduce aggression/ promote cooperation)
3) trickery (male beetles will engage in courtship w/ each other - douse male who WILL fertilize a female w/ ur sperm b/c u can't get a girl yourself
4) practice for real copulation
5) parental manipulation
6) helpers @ the nest - when sibling get coerced into staying to help raise younger siblings
7) inclusive fitness - your direct fitness (# kids you have)+ indirect fitness (# kids your relatives have)
8) a byproduct of another trait (female fecundity enhancement)

Front 68

predictions of inclusive fitness hypothesis for homosexuality

Back 68

more nieces and nephews, they'd be better off because a homo would be able to take care of siblings' kids instead of their own, but there's no evidence to back this up

Front 69

same-sex pairbonding can influence _____ ________ & ________. Example = albatrosses

Back 69

social dynamics; evolution

up to 30% F in colony in a F/F pair, some even have chicks

increased fitness for F when paired with another F

increased male promiscuity - decreased parental care of M b/c Fs are pairing up

expressed as a relationship

malleability maintained - F will have sex w/ M but its based on conflicts

Front 70

what we know about homosexual behavior

Back 70

behavior is not the same as orientation

homosexuals DO reproduce

homosexual behavior tends to be
-age stratified
-gender stratified - 2 indivs in same sex relationship, one might take on a masculine role
-class-stratified

homo behavior occurs during adolescence and in prisons

conflict reduction is a big deal

Front 71

why is there less information and fewer studies about lesbians?

Back 71

less access
less consistency
more complex
F see sex as an extension of relationships
less polarized
fewer negative attitudes towards

Front 72

sex differences come primarily from _______

Back 72

hormones

Front 73

life-span development stages

Back 73

embryological - fetal - juvenile - adolescent - adult - senescence - death

Front 74

embryological sexual development

Back 74

-differention of cell types
-organ systems - circulation, reproductive
-body structures
-migration of germ cells
-gonadal differentiation
-increasing cell numbers

Front 75

fetal sexual development

Back 75

-increased details & external features
-increased cell #s
-***SEXUAL DIFFERENTIATION****
-gonadal system active, ONLY IN MALES
-sensitivity to steroids

Front 76

infantile/juvenile sexual development

Back 76

gonadal system off & b/cms insensitive to steroids

Front 77

adolescent sexual development

Back 77

gonadal system turns on
sensitivity to steroids returns

big difference b/wn M&F at this point (esp in the brain)

Front 78

adulthood sexual development

Back 78

gonadal system functional

Front 79

senescence sexual develpment

Back 79

decreased steroid sensitivity

F gonadal system turns off

Front 80

_____ is not a very meaningful marker during development b/c mammals are at diff stages of development among species

Back 80

birth

Front 81

two types of babies in mammals: altricial and precocial

Back 81

altricial: born b/f nervous system totally developed (rat, mouse, dog, cat)

precocial: includes humans, our nervous system is pretty much developed (really precocial = rhesus monkey and guinea pig)

Front 82

you need ______ on y chromosome to b/cm a boy

Back 82

SRY

medullary development so it b/cms testis

Front 83

boys need ______ to act on Mullerian Ducts so it will be suppressed and the wolffian duct will develop

need _____ to act on wolfian ducts

Back 83

anti-mullerian hormone

androgen

Front 84

if man has no androgen receptors, will have ______ genitals but ______ gonad

Back 84

female; male