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200 Cards in this Set
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1. How long does puberty last on average?
How does weight affect the onset of puberty? What about race? |
Last from 3 to 5 years
Overweight begin menstruating earlier African American girls reach puberty earlier than Caucasian girls |
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2. When puberty begins what happens hormonally?
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Pituitary gland begin secreting FSH and LH
FSH and LH stimulate the ovaries to produce estrogen |
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3. What is estrogen responsible for in puberty?
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Development and maturation of primary and secondary sex characteristics
Fallopian tubes, uterus, and vagina mature and increase in size Breasts develop, skin remains soft and smooth, fat cells increase in butt and thighs, pubic hair grows, stop growing in height |
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4. When does ovulation begin?
What is mittelschmerz? |
During puberty about age 11 or 12
*increase in sex interest at this time due to rise in hormones (testosterone) German for "middle pain". A pain in the abdomen or pelvis that some women feel at ovulation |
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5. What is menarche?
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The start of menstrual cycling, usually during early puberty
Beginning of ovulation often closely corresponds to menarche In the first year after menarche 80% of menstrual cycles are anovulatory (do not involve ovulation) |
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6. What is the main reason for a menstrual cycle?
What are some characteristics of girls who have earlier menarche? |
Enable a woman to become a pregnant
Shorter and heavier |
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7. What are the four general phases of the menstrual cycle?
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1. Follicular phase
2. Ovulation 3. Luteal phase 4. Menstrual phase |
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8. What is the follicular phase?
How long does it last? What is present at this phase? What is released? |
First phase of the menstrual cycle that begins after the last menstruation has been completed
Lasts from 6 to 13 days Only a thin layer of endometrial cells remains from the last menstruation Estrogen released by the ovaries stimulates regrowth of endometrium |
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9. What is the ovulation phase?
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The second stage of the general menstrual cycle, when the ovum is released
Usually about the 14th day of the cycle |
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10. What is the luteal phase?
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Third phase of the menstrual cycle, following ovulation, when the corpus luteum forms
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11. What is the corpus luteum?
What does it secrete? |
A yellowish endocrine gland in the ovary formed when a follicle has discharged its secondary oocyte
Secretes additional progesterone and estrogen for 10 to 12 days |
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12. What does the additional estrogen and progesterone do?
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Causes further growth of cells in endometrium and increases the blood supply to lining of uterus
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13. What causes menstrual cramps?
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Prostaglandins
They stimulate the uterus to contract and expel the endometrial lining during menstruation |
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14. If fertilization does not occur what happens?
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High levels of progesterone and estrogen signal hypothalamus to decrease LH and other hormone production
Corpus luteum degenerates as LH levels decline Secretion of estrogen and progesterone decreases sharply as corpus luteum becomes inactive and menstrual stage begins |
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15. What is the menstrual cycle?
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Final stage of the general menstrual cycle, when the endometrial cells shrink and slough off
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16. What is menses?
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The blood and tissue discharged from the uterus during menstruation
Usually stops about 3 to 7 days after the onset of menstruation |
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17. What is a negative feedback loop?
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When one set of hormones controls the production of another set, which in turn controls the first, thus regulating the monthly cycle of hormones
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18. What is amenorrhea?
What are the two types? |
The absence of menstruation
Primary Amenorrhea: lifelong absence of menstruation Secondary Amenorrhea: absence of menstruation after a period of normal menses |
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19. What are the common causes of primary amenorrhea?
What is the most common causes of secondary amenorrhea? What are some other causes? |
Malformed or underdeveloped female reproductive organs, glandular disorders, general poor health, emotional factors, or excessive exercise
Pregnancy, also occur with excessive exercise, eating disorders, emotional factors, certain diseases, surgical removal of ovaries or uterus, hormonal imbalance |
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20. What is menorrhagia?
What is dysfunctional uterine bleeding? What is dysmenorrhea? |
Excessive menstrual flow
Menstrual bleeding for long periods of time or intermittent bleeding throughout a cycle *caused by hormonal imbalance, weight loss, eating disorder, stress, chronic illness, excessive exercise Painful menstruation caused by variety of inflammations, constipation, or psychological stress |
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21. What does premenstrual syndrome (PMS) mean?
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Physical or emotional symptoms that appear in some women during the latter half of the menstrual cycle (post ovulation phase) that can affect their relationships and/or ability to function
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22. What are some symptoms of PMS?
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1. "Out of control"
2. Sad 3. Cranky 4. Depression 5. Insomnia 6. Excessive sleepiness 7. Restlessness 8. Feelings of hopelessness |
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23. What is premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD)?
How is it diagnosed? |
Most debilitating and severe cases of PMS
Need to chart symptoms for at least two menstrual cycles to establish a typical pattern of symptoms |
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24. What are the four main areas of PMDD and their symptoms?
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1. Mood:
-depression, irritability, mood swings, sadness, hostility 2. Behavioral: -argumentative, increased eating, decrease interest in activities 3. Somatic: -abdominal bloating, fatigue, headaches, hot flashes, insomnia, backache, constipation, breast tenderness, cravings for carbs 4. Cognitive: -confusion and poor concentration |
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25. What are some causes of PMDD?
What are some treatments? Who is at risk for developing PMDD? |
Serotonin dysregulation and genetic component
Fluoxetine Those who have major depression, PTSD, sexual abuse, those who smoke |
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26. What is menstrual manipulation?
What is menstrual suppression? How can menstrual periods be suppressed? |
The ability to plan and schedule the arrival of menstruation
The elimination of menstrual periods Can use birth control pills, progesterone, intrauterine devices, and injections |
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27. What are intrauterine devices?
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Devices that are inserted into the uterus for contraception
Progesterone IUDs often inhibit menstruation |
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28. How do these methods suppress the menstrual cycle?
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Suppress the growth of the uterine lining, leaving little or nothing to be expelled during menstruation
*this is treatment for endometriosis |
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29. What is endometriosis?
What can it cause? |
The growth of endometrial tissue outside the uterus
Can cause severe menstrual cramping and irregular periods |
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30. What is menopause?
What is climacteric? |
The cessation of menstrual cycling
The combination of physiological and psychological changes that develop at the end of a woman's reproductive life, usually includes menopause |
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31. What can cause an earlier onset of menopause?
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1. Smoking
2. Being separated, widowed, or divorced 3. Unemployment 4. Lower education 5. History of heart disease |
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32. What is the first sign of climacteric?
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A menstrual cycle that does not include ovulation
*In most cases menstruation does not stop suddenly |
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33. What does diminishing estrogen cause?
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1. Atrophy of primary sexual glands
2. Clitoris and labia become smaller 3. Degenerative changes in vaginal wall 4. Ovaries and uterus shrinks 5. Pubic hair loss 6. Thinning of head hair 7. Growth of hair on upper lip and chin 8. Drooping of breasts 9. Wrinkling of skin 10. Osteoporosis |
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34. What is osteoporosis?
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An age-related disorder characterized by decreased bone mass and increased susceptibility to fractures as a result of decreased levels of estrogens
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35. What is hormone replacement therapy?
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Medication containing one or more female hormones often used to treat symptoms of menopause
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36. How can HRT help in menopause?
What can it increase the risk for? |
1. Maintain vaginal elasticity and lubrication
2. Reduce hot flashes 3. Reduce depression 4. Restore regular sleep patterns 5. Decrease risk of developing colorectal cancer and osteoporosis Increase risks of heart attacks, strokes, blood clots, and breast cancer |
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37. How long on average is the menstrual cycle?
How is the first day identified? What is the alternative view of five phases instead of four? |
28 days
First day of menstrual flow Follicular phase, Ovulation, Luteal phase, Premenstrual phase, Menstruation or Menses) |
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38. What two parts of the cycle present the maximal difference in hormone levels?
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Ovulation and the premenstrual and menstrual period
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39. What is midcycle?
What hormone is high at midcycle? What can occur during midcycle? |
3 days before ovulation, ovulation, and 3 days after ovulation
Estrogen Time pregnancy is most likely to occur |
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40. What is the end cycle?
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Premenstrual and menstrual part of cycle
Last few days before menstruation and first 3 days of menstruation |
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41. How are hormone levels during end cycle?
What physical symptoms occur at end cycle? |
Estrogen and progesterone are both very low levels
Cramping, digestive disorders (constipation and gas), acne **water retention and resulting weight gain is caused by high levels of progesterone initiated by ovulation |
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42. How do women tend to feel at mid cycle?
What about at end cycle? |
Happy
Irritability, depression, anxiety, moodiness, and hostility |
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43. Are psychological or physical changes more common during the menstrual cycle?
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Only 40% to 50% of women have regular mood changes correlating to cycle
Psychological less common than physical |
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44. Compare the hormone levels in the midcycle and endcycle periods.
What are some of the physical changes occurring in the end cycle? |
Midcycle ‑ Estrogen and progesterone levels are very high.
Premenstrual ‑ Estrogen and progesterone levels are quite low. Physical symptoms include menstruation, cramps, water retention, weight gain, acne, digestive disorders, headaches and backaches. |
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45. What psychological and behavioral changes have been associated with the end cycle period?
How are these different from the psychological correlates of the mid cycle period? |
Premenstrual:
1. Increases in depression, anxiety, irritability and hostility 2. Increased sex drive 3. Focus on negative events 4. More crime, illness, suicide attempts and accidents |
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46. What are five explanations for the cyclical mood changes experienced by women?
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1. Direct biological effects:
-changing hormone levels cause mood shifts 2. Indirect reaction to hormone changes ‑depression and irritability result from upset over physical symptoms of premenstrual period of cycle 3. Concern over pregnancy and menstruation ‑negative feelings from fears associated with pregnancy and upset over preparing for menstrual flow 4. Learned Expectations: -women are taught to feel irritable and depressed premenstrually 5. Good excuse -women purposefully act in ways they think others except |
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47. How does the direct hormonal effect cyclical mood changes?
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1. High levels of estrogen cause positive mood changes and lead to euphoria at mid cycle
2. Low levels of estrogen and progesterone lead to depression and irritability during end cycle |
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48. What are some examples that support the direct hormonal effect?
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1. Some women feel more depressed and irritable after menopause (permanently low levels of estrogen and progesterone)
2. During pregnancy (high hormone levels) many women report feeling happier and more content |
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49. Why do researchers reject this direct hormonal hypothesis?
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Psychological effects are not as consistent as physical changes associated w/ various phases
Support for psychological explanations and evidence that purely biological can't cut it |
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50. How could the indirect hormonal effects theory explain cyclical mood changes?
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May be more negative about self (and depressed and irritable) during premenstrual part b/c you feel less confident b/c feel unattractive due to weight gain and acne
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51. How does indirect hormonal effects explain individual differences?
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Since we all have different psychological reactions to the menstrual cycle we would expect women to vary how they react to unpleasant symptoms
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52. If this theory is true what should we see regarding women who experience more physical symptoms?
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They would show more mood changes
Data is not strong on this point but the data we do have support this idea |
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53. In order for the concern over pregnancy theory to be convincing what kind of data would we need?
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Data showing that sexually active women who are concerned about pregnancy would have more extreme mood changes
*no supporting evidence one way or the other |
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54. How can concern over menstruation explain cyclic mood changes?
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Concern over necessary preparation for menstruation causes irritability and anxiety
Feel like you need to restrict activities during menstruation, you might feel irritable with doing this or thinking about having to do this |
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55. What is the learned expectations theory?
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Women react in the ways they do to end cycle because they have been trained to react in this way
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56. How does our society describe menstruation?
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Describe it in a non-pleasant manner and suggest that a significant event is taking place
We have a number of cultural taboos about activities to be avoided during menstruation |
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57. What are at least four cultural beliefs which might cause women to react negatively to the idea of their own menstruation?
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1. Women may be attacked by wild animals when menstruating
2. Belief that sexual relations should be avoided 3. Belief that women should not go swimming 4. Belief that if a woman is depressed, she must be menstruating 5. Belief that women do strange things when menstruating |
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58. How could we perpetuate societal beliefs about the behavior of women while menstruating unknowingly?
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If we expect something to happen at a particular time and it does happen, we will percieve a cause and effect relationship (even if this is not justified)
More aware of negative feelings if premenstrual and attribute feelings to cycle to continue reinforcing belief that they feel bad at end cycle |
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59. What is one argument against the learning theory?
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Women with highly irregular cycles report knowing they are premenstrual because they start feeling depressed and irritable
*these women don't know when they are premenstrual ahead of time |
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60. What does the "good excuse" theory explain?
What does it fail to explain? |
May explain hostile behavior of some women
Doesn't explain negative, depressed feelings reported by many women |
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61. For each theory give one type of data that would support and one type that would not support?
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1. Direct Hormonal
-correlation of mood changes with hormone changes -group differences in reported mood shifts (suggests learning) 2. Indirect Hormonal -negative reactions often assoc w/ unpleasant physical symptoms -no data showing that women with more physical symptoms have stronger mood changes 3. Pregnancy Concern: -many women do feel anxious and concerned about pregnancy as their cycle nears its end -no data showing sexually active women have more extreme mood shifts |
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62. Same question as above continued.
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4. Learned Expectation:
-clear evidence that we have cultural ideas about what women should feel when premenstrual -women who do not know physically when they should feel premenstrual still report cyclical changes 5. Good Excuse -women report using menstruation as an excuse for doing something they wanted to do but felt they couldn't at another time of the month. -only accounts for behaviors, not feelings |
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63. When do women feel most sexually aroused?
From an evolutionary point of view, when should women feel most aroused? |
Either during the end cycle period or at mid cycle
Mid cycle since this is the time of ovulation and time when pregnancy is most likely to occur |
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64. How can the hormones at mid cycle affect sexual arousal?
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Time when testosterone levels are at their highest point
BUT also time when estrogen is very high so may interfere and reduce testosterone affects |
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65. How does the indirect hormone theory explain feeling sexier at mid cycle?
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Mid cycle is time when many women feel especially happy
Positive feelings might also lead to greater interest in sex at this time |
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66. Why might some women report a peak in sexual feelings at the end cycle?
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Even though testosterone is not high, estrogen is not high either
SO, testosterone levels are high relative to estrogen levels |
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67. What are some other reasons for end cycle sexual peak?
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1. Anticipate not having sex when menstruating so make sure have it before menstruating
2. Biological: raised progesterone levels causes water retention in pubic area which may feel sexual to woman (similar to engorgement during arousal) -having an orgasm causes fluid to leave sexual tissue so feel good (recommended as treatment for cramps) |
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68. What is a non-hormonal explanation for women feeling more aroused in the middle of their cycle?
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1. Want to have a child
2. They are in a general good mood because of a lack of menstruation |
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69. What did Dalton's classic study show us about behavior as a function of the phase of the menstrual cycle?
What does Dalton's data only tell us about? |
Women who committed a crime were twice as likely to do so during the premenstrual period
Only tells us about what women who are already functioning in an abnormal way will be likely to do *Other data show that for normal women, there is little if any impairment in functioning during end cycle |
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70. What did we learn from a self-reported reaction to menstruation from college students?
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1. 68% saw menstruation as a positive event
2. 58% saw it as a bothersome event 3. 53% anticipate and predict the onset of menstruation 4. 33% saw it as a debilitating event 5. 12% denied any menstrual effects |
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71. What is the most common early indicator of pregnancy?
What are some other physical signs? |
Missing a period
1. Breast tenderness 2. Frequent urination 3. Morning sickness |
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72. What is morning sickness?
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The nausea and vomiting that some women have when they become pregnant (50% to 80& experience nausea, vomiting, or both)
Typically caused by the increase in hormones (estrogen and progesterone that irritates stomach lining) Can occur at any point in the day |
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73. What may be the purpose of morning sickness for the fetus?
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May protect the fetus from food-borne illness and chemicals in certain foods during the first trimester which the most critical time in development
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74. What is pseudocyesis?
What causes it? |
A condition in which a woman experiences signs of pregnancy even though she is not pregnant (morning sickness, gain weight, miss period)
Psychological basis and some from physical causes (tumor on pituitary gland) |
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75. What is couvade?
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A condition in which the father (or other relative) experiences the symptoms of pregnancy and/or childbirth without an actual pregnancy
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76. What do pregnancy tests test for?
What is this? |
Human chorionic gonadotropin
This hormone that stimulates production of estrogen and progesterone to maintain pregnancy |
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77. Where is hCG produced?
How can it be identified? What is the purpose of hCG? When are the levels peak? |
Produced by the cells in the developing placenta
Identified in blood or urine 8 to 9 days after ovulation Helps build and maintain a thick endometrial layer preventing menstruation Peak levels in 2nd and 3rd months of pregnancy (then levels drop off) |
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78. How accurate are pregnancy tests?
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Home tests can be inaccurate if taken too soon after conception
Postpone pregnancy test until after 12th week may have false negative b/c hCG levels are too low to be detected |
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79. What is a false negative?
What is a false positive? When does it occur? |
Wrongly shows lack of a finding
Wrongly shows the presence of a finding *may occur in presence of kidney disease or infection, overactive thyroid gland, large doses of tranquilizers, antidepressants, or anticonvulsant meds |
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80. What is a radioimmunoassay blood test?
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Blood pregnancy test
Most accurate and can detect hCG within a few days after conception |
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81. What is a ectopic pregnancy?
What can an ectopic pregnant and spontaneous abortion be detected? |
The implantation of the fertilized egg outside the uterus, such as in the Fallopian tubes or abdomen
Levels of hCG rise early in pregnancy and woman's hormones do not follow the pattern |
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82. What is the Naegeles rule?
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A means of figuring the due date by subtracting 3 months from the first day of the last menstrual period and adding 7 days
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83. How long is a full term pregnancy?
How long is each trimester? |
40 weeks
Each trimester is approximately 12-15 weeks long |
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84. What is a sonography?
What is an ultrasound? |
Electronic monitoring also called ultrasound
The use of ultrasonic waves to monitor a developing fetus |
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85. When is the first trimester?
What does it entail? |
First 13 weeks of pregnancy (1 to 13 weeks)
Most important embryonic development takes plac |
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86. What happens by the end of the first month of pregnancy?
What is the first organ system to develop? |
1. Fetal heart is formed and begins to pump blood
2. Digestive system develops 3. Beginnings of the brain, spinal cord, nervous system, muscles, arms, legs, eyes, fingers, and toes Circulatory System |
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87. What is the fetus like by the end of the first trimester?
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Weighs 1/2 ounce
3 inches long |
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88. What changes occur in the mother during the first trimester?
What are the physical symptoms? |
Body adjusts to increased levels of estrogen and progesterone
1. Fatigue 2. Breast tenderness 3. Constipation 4. Increased urination 5. Nausea and/or vomiting |
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89. What is the final confirming sign of pregnancy?
When can this been seen? Why is it so important? |
Fetal heartbeat
Heartbeat can be seen by 6 wks After heartbeat is seen or heard, probability of miscarriage drops significantly |
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90. When is the second trimester?
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Second 15 weeks of pregnancy
(weeks 14 to 28) |
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91. What prenatal development occurs during the second trimester?
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1. Fetus grows dramatically (13 in. long by end of trimester)
2. Feel fetus moving around inside 3. Gender can be determine as early as 16 wks (usually not until 20 to 22 wks though) 4. Weighs about 1 3/4 lbs by end of trimester 5. Developed tooth buds and reflexes |
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92. What is lanugo?
What is vernix? |
The downy covering of hair over a fetus
Cheesy substance that coats the fetus in the uterus |
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93. Can a fetus survive if born at the end of the second trimester?
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May be able to survive with intensive medical care
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94. What changes occur in the pregnant mother during the second trimester?
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1. Nausea begins to subside
2. Fatigue continues 3. Increase in appetite, heartburn 4. Edema (ankle or leg swelling) 5. Vaginal discharge 6. Constipation and muscle cramps 7. Fetal movement felt (as early as 16 weeks) |
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95. How is the second trimester for the mother mood wise?
How is the mother sexually during the second trimester? |
Usually the most positive time for the mother
Increase sex drive (period of high sexual satisfaction) |
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96. When is the third trimester?
What does it end with? |
Final weeks of pregnancy
(weeks 28 to 40) Ends with birth |
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97. What prenatal developments occur during the third trimester?
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1. Develops fat deposits (by end of 7 months)
2. React to pain, light, and sounds 3. Hiccups and suck thumb 4. In 8th month, majority of organ systems developed |
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98. What are the chances of survival if born at end of 7 months?
How is the fetus by the end of 8 months? How is the baby at birth? |
Good chance of survival
15 inches and 3 lbs 20 inches and 7.5 lbs |
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99. What changes happen in the mother during the third trimester?
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1. Symptoms from second trimester continue
2. Increase in heartburn and constipation 3. Back aches, leg cramps, increase in varicose veins 4. Hemorrhoids 5. Sleep problems 6. Shortness of breath 7. Braxton-Hicks contractions |
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100. What are Braxton-Hicks contractions?
What is the colostrum? |
Intermittent contractions of the uterus after the third month of pregnancy
A thin, yellowish fluid high in protein and antibodies secreted from the nipples at the end of pregnancy and during the first few days after delivery |
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101. What physical changes happen to the mother after the delivery?
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1. Painful contractions (caused by oxytocin)
2. Uterus returns to original size (6 wks after - quicker in breast feeding mothers) 3. Bloody discharge for about a week 4. Increase in frequency of urination |
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102. What postpartum psychological changes occur in the mother?
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Minor sadness is common
Postpartum depression Postpartum psychosis in most extreme cases |
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103. What is postpartum depression?
What contributes to feelings of postpartum depression? How does race affect postpartum depression? |
A woman's clinical depression that occurs after childbirth
Physical exhaustion, physiological changes, and increased responsibility of child rearing coupled with postpartum hormonal changes African Americans and Hispanics report it more than white mothers |
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104. What is postpartum psychosis?
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The rare occurrence of severe, debilitation depression or psychotic symptoms in the mother after childbirth
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105. How long should a woman wait after giving delivery to have sex?
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Advise waiting 6 weeks but can safely have sex 2 weeks after delivery
Cesarean section usually 2 weeks for incision to heal and then okay to have sex |
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106. How is the sexuality of a new mother?
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Slower and less intense excitement stages of sexual response cycle
Decrease in vaginal lubrication |
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107. When does a woman's desire and excitement return to original levels?
How does breast feeding affect sexuality? |
3 months postpartum
Breast feeding women report higher levels of sexual interest |
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108. What is released in the first few days of breast feeding?
Why is it important? |
Colostrum
Strengthens baby's immune system |
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109. What are the benefits of breast feeding for the infant?
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1. Strengthen immune system
2. Strengthen cognitive development 3. Reduce allergies, asthma, tooth decay, respiratory infections, and diarrhea 4. Body-to-body contact decreases stress and improves mood (both infant and mother) |
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110. What does wean mean?
What does the American Academy of Pediatrics recommend? What does the World Health Organization recommend? |
To accustom a baby to take nourishment other than nursing from the breast
Exclusive breast feeding for 6 months w/ continued breast-feeding for a min of 1 year Exclusive breast-feeding for first 4 to 6 months and continued breast-feeding until at least age of 2 |
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111. How do hormone levels change during pregnancy?
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Estrogen levels rise up to 300x's normal level
Progesterone levels are 10x's their normal highs Testosterone levels do not rise so relative to female hormones it is quite low |
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112. What are the early physical signs of pregnancy?
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1. Lack of menstruation
2. Tenderness of breasts 3. Morning sickness 4. Digestive upset 5. Frequent urination 6. Fatigue 7. Sex interest tends to be low |
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113. What happens biologically in beginning of pregnancy?
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1. Fertilized egg implants in uterus about a week after being fertilized in Fallopian tube
2. Corpus luteum continues to produce high levels of estrogen and progesterone 3. Placenta develops after 11 weeks and takes over hormone production |
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114. How are hormone levels in the beginning of pregnancy?
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Tend to be unstable until placenta takes over
Most women feel sick as their bodies adjust to rising hormones |
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115. How are hormone levels in the second trimester?
How do women report feeling in the second trimester? How is their sex drive during the second trimester? |
Estrogen and progesterone levels are high and stable
Feel happy and content Sex interest remains relatively low BUT is highest in this trimester than in others |
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116. How are hormone levels during the third trimester?
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In last two months, hormone levels begin to fluctuate as body prepares for labor and delivery
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117. What mood changes are associated with each of the three trimesters?
How do these correlate with the hormonal changes? |
First trimester:
-fatigue: increased progesterone -depression: no hormonal cause Second trimester: -feelings of calm and well being: high levels of estrogen and progesterone Third trimester: -increase in emotional disturbances, anxiety: no hormonal cause All reactions are highly variable across women. |
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118. How might a single teenager respond to pregnancy?
Why? |
Likely be upset and anxious about her pregnancy
Stigma involved in teenage pregnancy and in bearing children out of wedlock |
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119. How might a healthy, married 28 year old respond to pregnancy?
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Assuming that she wanted a pregnancy, she would probably be very happy and excited at the thought of becoming a mother
She may also be concerned about the effects of pregnancy, the process of childbirth, and becoming a new mother |
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120. How might a married 45 year old who had difficulty getting pregnant respond to pregnancy?
Why? |
React to her pregnancy with happiness, but also a lot of concern
Because older women are more likely to have problems with their pregnancies, she would probably be more concerned about carrying the baby to term and having a healthy pregnancy and healthy baby |
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121. List three bits of advice that pregnant women are likely to receive?
What might their reaction be if advice was given by physician, mother, or stranger? |
1. Smoking causes problems for the baby
-P:try to quite since doctors is credible source -M:may still try to quite but be somewhat annoyed w/ mom -S:annoyed and mad at stranger for trying to tell her what to do 2. Should cut back caffeine intake. -P:try to cut back -M:annoyed about unwanted advice but still try to cut back -S:same as above 3. Should limit amount of sexual activity because it could hurt baby. -P:try to heed advice -M:might believe mom -S:really pissed b/c crossed boundary of privacy |
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122. How can the father react to pregnancy?
Why is the father's reaction important? |
1. Be proud of being father and be highly supportive
2. May not be sexually attractive to pregnant wife (source of tension for both) Their reaction is important to understanding reactions of pregnant woman *pregnancy is generally difficult for a couple (many divorces occur) |
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123. What are four reasons why the relationship between a man and a woman might become strained during and immediately after pregnancy?
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1. The decline in the couple's sex life due to pregnancy could be problematic
2. The future parents both may be anxious about the pregnancy and becoming parents, contributing to overall stress which can impact the relationship 3. The future parents might have different perspectives on the pregnancy (e.g., she wants the baby, he doesn't) 4. The future mother's discomfort might make her crankier than usual, leading to marital problems |
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124. What evidence is their for the direct hormonal cause of change associated with pregnancy?
How might one explain why positive feelings aren't common during the early and late stages of pregnancy? |
Relationship between high levels of estrogen and progesterone during second trimester and feelings of well being
In first and third trimester hormone levels are unstable and possibly the high and stable levels are most associated with positive and calm moods |
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125. What theory has more validity though for explaining the psychological pregnancy data?
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Women are reacting to the physical symptoms of pregnancy
*This is the indirect theory discussed in menstruation |
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126. What evidence is there for the theory of women responding to the physical symptoms?
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1. Since women experience more unpleasant symptoms during the early & late stages
makes sense they feel happier in second stage 2. Women are variable in their reactions to the physical symptoms since symptoms themselves are different across the board |
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127. How might there be an interaction between feelings caused by hormones and those caused by physical symptoms?
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Women feel generally good except when factors such as nausea (first trimester) or difficulty breathing (third trimester) reduce these good feelings
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128. What is analogous theory to the explanation for menstrual mood changes is reacting to it or concern over pregnancy?
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Women are reacting to their feelings about being pregnant
At first may be more anxious, adjust to idea and find self excited and happy In final stages, again become concerned over how they will function as the mother of a new baby |
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129. What is the major problem with the theory that women are reacting to being pregnant?
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It assumes that women will generally have the same reactions to a major event
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130. How might learned expectations explain how women react to pregnancy?
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If pregnant women are expected to be passive and happy then women who are pregnant may have these feelings b/c they are expected to have them
Attribute these feelings when they do have them to pregnancy thus reinforcing cultural learning |
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131. Does the "good excuse" theory explain any of the psychological changes associated with pregnancy?
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Doesn't explain why they would feel happier
Might help us understand some of the unreasonable behaviors pregnant women are sometimes accused of Indulge self in special foods they like and avoid doing things they don't want to do |
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132. How do sexual feelings change during pregnancy?
What may this be attributed to? |
Decline in sexual interest, especially during first and last trimesters
Continued decline in sexual interest for some time after pregnancy Drop in sexual interest can be explained by the relatively low levels of testosterone during pregnancy |
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133. What is at least one psychological reason for why women might feel less like having sex during the first and last trimester than they did before getting pregnant?
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Women are most uncomfortable, due to factors such as morning sickness, fatigue, or the size of the baby
This discomfort may decrease their desire for sexual activity |
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134. How is birth in the US?
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Treated as a medical event where you go to hospital and lay on hospital bed
*this is a difficult position for birth since gravity is not helping |
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135. Why is labor slow?
What is done to overcome the slowness of labor? |
Unnatural position of lying down
Administer drugs to speed up labor These drugs can cause labor to be too fast and tissue in the vagina can tear and be difficult to heal |
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136. What is a episiotomy?
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This is where the tissue between the vagina and rectum is cut so the wound is straight and easy to stitch up
*This is done over concern of tearing |
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137. How are women after giving birth?
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1. Tired
2. Thirsty 3. Very sore 4. Depressed and cry easily |
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138. What happens to hormone levels after birth?
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Progesterone levels begin to drop relative to estrogen levels shortly after birth
Within a few hours after birth, estrogen levels drop to near pre-pregnancy levels Progesterone levels may remain higher than pre-pregnancy levels to support production of milk and nursing |
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139. What theories support postpartum depression?
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Direct Hormonal Theory
-large and rapid drop in hormone levels correlating w/ feeling depressed Indirect Hormone Theory -reactions to feeling tired and sore -may be very anxious about how to take care of the new baby |
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140. How can learning affect the reactions of postpartum women?
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Women appear to react to this time in similar ways to their own mothers
Ethnic background is implicated in rates of postpartum depression |
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141. What are hormone levels like if you continue nursing?
What does this prevent? |
Progesterone levels remain high as long as continue nursing
More difficult to become pregnant |
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142. What are some physical advantages of breast-feeding?
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1. Sucking breast causes uterine contractions helping to bring uterus back to its smaller size
2. Breast milk is ideal food for infant 3. Estrogen production is suppressed so onset of normal menstruation may be delayed 4. Prolactin is produced to aid in milk production |
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143. What are three pros of breast feeding for the mother?
What are three cons of breast feeding for the mother? |
1. Uterus returns to normal shape quicker
2. Natural birth control (progesterone remains high) 3 Easing the soreness of breasts when the milk comes in 1. Limited number of private places in which to breast-feed in public 2. Social pressure to wean early 3. Father cannot be as involved in feeding |
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144. How do researchers collect information?
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Interviews
Laboratory experiments Direct observation Participant observation Correlation |
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145. What is validity?
What is reliability? What is generalizability? |
The property of measuring device measuring what it is intended to measure
Consistency of the measure Ability of samples in a study to have wide applicability to the general population |
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146. What is a case study?
What is a drawback to case studies? |
A research methodology that involves an in-depth examination of one participant or a small number of participants
Does not allow generalizations because sample is small |
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147. What does a questionnaire or survey research identify?
What are some advantages of interviews over questionnaires? |
Attitudes, knowledge, or behavior of large samples
1. Establish rapport 2. Emphasize importance in honesty 3. Vary order of questions and skip irrelevant ones |
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148. What are some limitations of interviews over using questionnaire?
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1. Times consuming
2. Expensive *questionnaires provide more honesty b/c of anonymity of questionnaire |
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149. Why is direct observation the least used method?
Why is direct observation nice? |
Difficult to find people who are willing to have sex in lab while researchers monitor bodily functions
Actually monitor behavior as it happens so results are more credible |
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150. What are some disadvantages of direct observation?
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1. More expensive
2. May not be as generalizable 3. Impossible to gather random sample 4. Ignores feelings, attitudes, or personal history |
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151. What is participant observation?
What are two disadvantages of participant observation? |
Research methodology that involves actual participation in the event being researched
1. Difficult to generalize b/c researcher could subtly influence findings 2. Most sexual behavior occurs in private where researchers have no access |
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152. What is special about the experimental method?
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1. Allows us to isolate cause and effect
2. Strict control is maintained over all variables 3. Random assignment |
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153. What is random assignment?
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Assigning participants to groups in an experiment such that each participant has an equal change of being assigned to any one group
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154. What are some disadvantages of experiments?
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1. Expensive (time and money)
2. Study could be too sterile or artificial 3. Results may be faulty or inapplicable to real world 4. Not always possible in certain areas like in the field of sexuality |
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155. What is correlation?
What is a correlational study? |
Statistical measure of the relationship between two variables
Examines relationship between two variables and often used when it's not possible to do an experiment |
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156. What is a limitation of correlation studies?
What are some problem in sexuality research? |
No info about cause
Ethical issues, volunteer bias, sampling problems, and reliability |
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157. What is informed consent?
What is confidentiality? |
Means that the person knows what to expect from the question and procedures, how the information will be used, that his or her confidentiality will be assured, and to whom he or she can address questions
All materials collected are kept private and confidental |
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158. What did Rosenthal and Rosnow claim about people who participate in psychological studies?
What are volunteers that participate in sexuality research like? Which is sex is more likely to be volunteers? |
They have a special interest in the studies in which they participate
1. More sexually liberated 2. More sexually experienced 3. More interested in sexual variety 4. More likely to have intercourse vs give oral sex 5. Less traditional sexual attitudes Men |
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159. How can the researcher know anything about the nonvolunteers who are not in the study?
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Ask all participants to fill out questionnaire that contains personality measures and sexuality questions
Participants then asked whether or not they'd volunteer for sex study Volunteers differ from nonvolunteers so difficult to generalize results |
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160. What type of population do sexuality studies routinely use?
What is a problem with this? What are samples of conviences? |
College-age population
Miss certain groups and under represent minorities and disabled A research methodology that involves using samples that are easy to collect and acquire |
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161. How reliable is sex research?
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Couples who are sexually satisfied tend to overestimate frequency of sexual behavior
Unsatisfied under report Participants memory affects reliability |
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162. What did Marhsall and Suggs study Human Sexual Behavior study?
What were some important findings from the study? |
Examine how sexuality was expressed in several different cultures
1. Masturbation is rare in preliterate cultures 2. In majority of societies, foreplay is engage in prior to intercourse 3. Foreplay is usu initiated by males 4. Sex is usu at night prior to falling to sleep 5. Female orgasmic ability varies greatly from culture to culture |
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163. What is The Pfizer Global Study of Sexual Attitudes and Behaviors?
What were three findings of this study? |
First global survey to study sexual behavior, attitudes, and beliefs and relationship satisfaction
1. 80% men and 60% women said sex was important in overall life 2. Highest ratings for importance of sex came from Korea 3. Lowest ratings from Hong Kong |
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164. What are some disadvantages and risks to Internet based sexuality research?
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1. Participants can lie and sabotage research
-submit multiple responses 2. Not representative of all Americans -under represent minorities, low SES, and uneducated 3. Minors may access Internet based sexuality research studies |
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165. What was the sample from Kinsey et Al. like?
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1. 5300 men and 5960 women
2. No data for blacks 3. Primarily from northeast, Indiana, CA and FL 4. Biased to include more college-educated, younger, and non-churchgoing people 5. Under-represented Catholics, Jews, single women, farmers, and non-whites |
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166. What was the major problem with Kinsey's findings?
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He oversampled more permissive parts of the society and his data may well suggest that people were MORE sexually active than they were
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167. What was the next major publication after Kinsey?
Who funded this? |
Hunt survey, wanted to replicate Kinsey finding to look at changes
Playboy foundation |
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168. What was Hunt's sample like?
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1. Used a random sample rather than convenience like Kinsey (used telephones #'s)
2. 24 cities and suburban areas 3. 90% white and 10% black 3. 71% married and 25% never married |
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169. What procedures did Hunt use?
What were some problems with Hunt's survey? |
Written survey and some interviews
Questions were less bias than those used by Kinsey 1. High refusal rate (80%) 2. 20% who did agree may have been more open about sexual activity and probably more permissive |
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170. When was Klassen, Williams, and Levitt conducted their survey?
When did they publish? |
Conducted in 1970's but not published until 1989 (20 years later)
*By time data was made available, it was not longer relevant for understanding current behavior (historical interest) |
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171. What can this study allow us do with the Hunt study?
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Allows a comparison of two studies done at nearly the same time BUT using very different samples
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172. What was Klassen et al. sample like?
What was the rejection rate like? Who was under-represented though in the Klassen et al. study? What techniques were use? |
More representative b/c it was a random sample of the entire US population (not just urban areas)
Lower rejection rate (20% vs 80% with Hunt) Those over 65 (oversampled purposely youth and blacks) Standard survey techniques |
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173. What is the NHSLS?
What were the two books published? |
Most recent (1994) national random sample of US sexual behavior
Book 1: Sex in America (popular version) Book 2: The social organization of sexuality: Sexual practices in the United States (technical details) |
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174. What is important about the NHSLS?
What was the sample like? What techniques were used? |
First major sex survey funded by the US government to look at behavior across the US
National random sample collected in 1992 Face to face interviews supplemented results of anonymous surveys |
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175. Why was this research in the NHSLS study done?
What was the response rate? |
Done because of concerns about AIDS
Response rate of 79% |
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176. What are some of the problems with doing any type of survey research on human sexuality?
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1. Can't remember what they actually did
2. Purposeful distortion 3. People may respond to socially desirable ways 4. People with more conservative attitudes may refuse to participate, giving the study a built‑in non‑conservative bias |
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177. What sample was used in each study and what type of bias did they suffer from?
(Kinsey et al., Hunt, Klassen et al., NHSLS) |
Kinsey:
-Oversampled young, educated, non-religious groups -Underrepresented Catholics, Jews, single women, farmers, and non-whites Hunt: -Underrepresented rural dwellers, non-whites, and those who were never married Klassen: -Underrepresented over 65 -Overrepresented those with high education NHSLS: None discussed |
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178. What techniques did Kinsey's group use to encourage disclosure and honesty in responses?
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1. Questions were asked in everyday language
2. Questions were worded to encourage people stating that they had engaged in the activity 3. All responses were anonymous |
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179. What did a 1998 survey of attitudes find about premarital sex?
Are the findings from the most recent NHSLS survey consistent with these findings? Which sex is more likely to engage in premarital sex? |
1. 24% US adults said it's unacceptable
2. 21% said always acceptable 3. Most believe it's acceptable in some situations NHSLS survey is consistent with these attitudes Men |
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180. What trend is seen when looking at the date from the four studies on the percentage of people who reported some premarital intercourse?
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Men generally are more likely to have premarital sex, with the exception of NHSLS data for 18 to 24 years
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181. Why is there an especially large difference between men and women having premarital sex in the Kinsey study?
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Survey collected data from adults of all ages in the 1940's
So many of these people grew up during the Victorian Era and at that time prostitution was common Since then as women engage in premarital sex more often, prostitution has become less common |
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182. Why is there a difference in percentages for the Hunt's study compared to Klassen et al.?
Why is understanding this difference important? |
Attribute this to the high rejection rate of Hunt's study and the fact that rural areas were omitted
*This suggests that the effects of the Human Potential Movement were not nearly as widespread as many assumed after Hunt's publication |
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183. On whom has the CDC done surveys on?
What is the sample like? |
High school students in grades 9 through 12 every 2 years from 1991 to 1995
National random sample, LARGE sample size |
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184. What has the data for these CDC survey indicated about premarital sex in adolescents?
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1. Males are more likely to report in engaging in premarital sex than females
2. Adolescents are becoming less likely in recent years to engage in premarital sex (informally info says they are engaging in oral sex more) 3. Blacks are more likely than whites to report in engaging in premarital sex 4. Whites have the lowest percentage of the three groups (blacks, Hispanics, whites) analyzed |
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185. Most of these studies rely on self-report data so people may not be fully honest. Give an example where someone might UNDER-report sexual activity?
When might the OVER-report sexual activity? |
Under-reporting of sexual activities that are considered to be "bad" or "wrong" in society (masturbation)
There might be over-reporting of sexual activities that the sample believes are normative |
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186. How do the findings of the CDC of adolescents correspond to the data discussed earlier from more general US population studies?
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Males are more likely than females to engage in premarital sexual intercourse
However the percentages of both males and females reporting premarital intercourse has dropped somewhat since the earlier studies |
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187. What has been found about marital sexual activity?
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1. Now more variety in positions for sex
2. More oral sex today 3. Married couples are more sexually active than singles 4. Women are more orgasmic in recent years 5. Married women are more orgasmic than single women (for men marital status is not so important) 6. More men than women report always having an orgasm |
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188. Married women report experiencing more orgasms than do single women? Why?
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1. The longer period of time taken in married intercourse may contribute to women having more orgasms.
2. Married couples may use more varied positions for intercourse than do singles |
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189. What does the frequency of sexual activity in married couples depend upon?
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1. Length of marriage (longer married, less sex)
2. Age of male (older husband less sexually active) 3. Affected by children (infants or young children decreases sex, probably b/c of fatigue) |
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190. How commonly is oral sex engage in?
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1. As widely practiced now in married couples as in non-married couples
2. Over 75% reported engaging in oral sex (compared to Kinsey were 49% of men and 54% of women receiving) 3. Blacks have less oral sex than whites 4. More educated individuals engage in oral sex more often |
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191. What has the data on masturbation revealed?
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1. Major increase in reported masturbation since Kinsey
2. Many women don't begin until after having sex 3. Men decline in frequency as they get older 4. More educated people are more likely to masturbate 5. Whites masturbate more than blacks |
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192. What do these data on masturbation imply about changes in sexual attitudes?
What may these changes be related to? |
Sexual attitudes, especially those toward masturbation, have become more accepting of these behaviors
The Human Potential movement or fear of sexually transmitted diseases |
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193. What has data on extramarital sex revealed?
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1. In the NHSLS data, extramarital sex is more common in men and those who divorce
2. This is one of the few types of activity that has become less common over the course of the 20th century 3. Decline in number of men having sex with prostitutes and having their first experience with one |
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194. What societal changes have accomplished this trend of a decline in extramarital sexual activity?
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1. Impact of the rise of STDs in general (and AIDS in particular)
2. Divorce rate has also increased so individuals who are unhappy in their relationship can end it without negative social consequences 3. The 20th century included the Victorian Era in which people were more approving of extramarital sex in terms of men having intercourse with prostitutes |
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195. What is the most permissive group in terms of acceptance of sexual activities (premarital, oral, masturbation, and other forms)?
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1. Young
2. Less religious (esp not Catholics or conservative Christian) 3. Urban 4. From West Coast |
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196. Why might younger groups be more permissive about sexual activities than older groups?
What about less religious groups vs. more religious groups? |
Younger people have been shown to engage in alternative sexual behaviors, such as oral sex, which require an open mind
Religious norms concerning sexuality will impact more religious individuals more so than less religious individuals |
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197. What sex is more permissive?
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Men EXCEPT when it comes to homosexuality
Men are more disapproving of homosexuality than women |
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198. For what kinds of sexual activities are their double standards where it's acceptable for men but not women?
What is double standard? |
1. Casual sex
2. Having more than one partner Difference in how we view the sexual behavior of women as compared to men |
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199. What overall differences in attitudes between whites and blacks has been found?
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1. Adolescent Blacks have intercourse earlier
2. Blacks are more likely to have premarital sex than whites 3. Blacks report less masturbation and oral sex (also disapprove of these) 4. Blacks disapprove of extramarital sex |
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200. List attitude differences between men and women.
List attitude differences between blacks and whites. |
Men are more permissive on most types of sexuality than are women (except when it comes to homosexuality)
Blacks disapprove more of masturbation, oral sex and extramarital sex than do whites |
