Human Physiology Unit 1

Front 1

What amount is a typical range of cells is typical for a human body?

Back 1

50 to 100 trillion cells

Front 2

What are the 3 main regions of a cell?

Back 2

1- Plasma membrane
2- Cytoplasm
3- Nucleus

Front 3

What is a plasma membrane (plasmalemma)?

Back 3

It's the outer thin and flexible membrane of the cell which separates the intracellular from the extracellular environment.

Front 4

What molecules are typically part of the plasma membrane?

Back 4

Phosopholipids, cholesterol, and glycolipids, within which proteins are embedded.

Front 5

What are phospholipids and what are the 2 main parts of them?

Back 5

Phospholipids are the most abundant lipids in the plasma membrane.

Consist:

The Heads which are hydrophilic, and lie on the inner and outer face of the membrane.

The tails are hydrophobic and line up in the center

Front 6

Define:

Integral Proteins
Peripheral Proteins

Back 6

Integral proteins:
-most abundant
-usually extend through the entire membrane or protrude through one end of the membrane
-Often act as receptors

Peripheral proteins
-Mainly on the cytoplasmic side
-Support cytoplasm through network of filaments

Glycocalyx
-a carbohydrate that is projected out from the external surface of glcyoproteins and glycolipids
-Functions in cell-to-cell binding and recognition

Front 7

What are 3 functions of the plasma membrane?

Back 7

1. Serves as an external cell barrier against substances and forces outside the cell.

2. Externally facing proteins act as receptors (for hormones, neurotransmitters, etc)

3. Acts in transport of substances into or out of the cell (semi-permeable membrane).

Front 8

Define:

diffusion
Active transport
Vesicular or bulk transport

Back 8

Diffusion: movement of small, uncharged, molecules across the membrane. Examples: Oxygen, CO2, and fat soluble molecules.

Active transport: most larger water-soluble or charged molecules. Examples: Glucose, amino acids, and ions. Uses facilitated diffusion or pumps. Involves integral proteins.

Vesicular or bulk transport: Macromolecules pass through the membrane this way. 2 types: exocytosis and endocystosis.

Front 9

define:

exocytosis
endocytosis

Back 9

Endocytosis is an energy-using process by which cells absorb molecules (such as proteins) by engulfing them. It is used by all cells of the body because most substances important to them are large polar molecules that cannot pass through the hydrophobic plasma or cell membrane.

e.g.: mucus and protein secretions from the glands in the body.


Exocytosis:
is the durable, energy-consuming process by which a cell directs the contents of secretory vesicles out of the cell membrane and into the extracellular space.

Front 10

define the 3 types of endocytosis

phagocytosis
pinocytosis
Receptor-mediated Endocytosis

Back 10

Phagocytosis: This is when white blood cells engulf bacteria and it creates a space called a phagosome which fuses with a lysozome where the bacteria are broken up by enzymes.

Pinocytosis: When the cell takes in fluid by small folding surrounds a small quantity of fluid outside the cell. Common in intestines to absorb nutrients

Receptor-mediated Endocytosis:
After the binding of a ligand to plasma membrane-spanning receptors, a signal is sent through the membrane, leading to membrane coating, and formation of a membrane invagination. The receptor and its ligand are then opsonized in clathrin-coated vesicles. Once opsonized, the clathrin-coated vesicle uncoats (a pre-requisite for the vesicle to fuse with other membranes) and individual vesicles fuse to form the early endosome. Since the receptor is internalized with the ligand, the system is saturable and uptake will decline until receptors are recycled to the surface.

Front 11

Define:

Familial hypercholesterolemia

Back 11

Is an inherited disease in which the cells lack the receptors that bind to cholesterol binding LDLs.

As a result, cholesterol cannot enter the cells and builds up in the blood, causing hypercholesterolemia and atherosclerosis which lead to stroke or myocardial infarction.

Front 12

Define:

Cytoplasm

Back 12

Cytoplasm: is the cellular region between the nucleus and plasma membrane.

Consists of the cytosol or cytoplasmic matrix:
the aqueous component of the cytoplasm of a cell, within which various organelles and particles are suspended.

Front 13

Define:

Ribosomes

Back 13

Ribosome: a minute particle consisting of RNA and associated proteins, found in large numbers in the cytoplasm of living cells. They bind messenger RNA and transfer RNA to synthesize polypeptides and proteins.

Front 14

Rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER):

Back 14

The outer (cytosolic) face of the rough endoplasmic reticulum is studded with ribosomes that are the sites of protein synthesis. Rough endoplasmic reticulum is especially prominent in cells such as hepatocytes where active protein synthesis occurs.

Front 15

What is the nucleus of a cell and what the 3 main parts of it?

Back 15

-Nucleus is the main control center of the cell and contains the genetic material (DNA). DNA directs the cells activities by providing the instructions for protein synthesis.

Parts:
1. Nuclear envelope
2. Chromatin and chromosomes
3. Nucleoli

Front 16

What is the nucleolus?

Back 16

The nucleolus is a structure found in the nucleus of cells. It forms around specific chromosomal regions in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells, and is made up of proteins and ribonucleic acids. Its function is to transcribe ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and combine it with proteins to form incomplete ribosomes.

Front 17

What is chromatin?

Back 17

Chromatin is how DNA exists in eukaryotic cells. They condense and shrink into chromosomes during Prophase of mitosis and meiosis.

Front 18

What happens in G1 phase?

Back 18

cells are active and grow vigorously and
centrioles start to replicate.

Front 19

What happens in G2 phase?

Back 19

Enzymes needed for cell division are
synthesized, centrioles finish replication
and cell gets ready to divide.

Front 20

What happens in S phase?

Back 20

DNA replicates itself for the future two
daughter cells having identical genetic
material

Front 21

What happens in prophase of mitosis?

Back 21

-Histones condense chromatin into chromosomes
-Centrioles move to polar ends of the cell
-Spindle fibers form
-The Nuclear envelope disintegrates
-Nucleoli disappears

Front 22

What happens in metaphase of mitosis?

Back 22

-Chromosomes cluster at the middle of the cell, to form a metaphase plate
-Seperase cleaves cohesin to start seperating the chromatids

Front 23

What happens in anaphase of mitosis?

Back 23

-The chromatids are pulled apart at their kinetochores by the spindle fibers.

Front 24

What happens in telophase of mitosis?

Back 24

-The chromosomes are pulled to opposite ends of the cell.
-A cleavage furrow develops and the cell elongates in preparation for cytokinesis.
-The chromsomes uncoil into chromatin
-The nuclear envelope reforms
-nucleoli appear

Front 25

What is cytokinesis:

Back 25

When the cell is divided

Front 26

What is down syndrome?

Back 26

Trisomy 21

Is a genetic disorder caused by the presence of all or part of a third copy of chromosome 21. It is typically associated with physical growth delays, a particular set of facial characteristics and a severe degree of intellectual disability. The average full-scale IQ of young adults with Down syndrome is around 50 (70 and below is defined as the cut-off for intellectual disability), whereas young adult controls have an average IQ of 100.

Front 27

What is Klinefelter's syndrome?

Back 27

Results from an additional X chromosome in males. (XXY)

Principal effects include hypogonadism and sterility. A variety of other physical and behavioural differences and problems are common, though severity varies and many XXY boys have few detectable symptoms.

The only reliable method of diagnosis is karyotype testing. The degree to which XXY males are affected, both physically and developmentally, differs widely from person to person.

Front 28

Turner syndrome

Back 28

(XO)...
absence of the other X chromosome (Monosomy X)

Encompasses several conditions in human females, of which monosomy X (absence of an entire sex chromosome, the Barr body) is most common. It is a chromosomal abnormality in which all or part of one of the sex chromosomes is absent or has other abnormalities (unaffected humans have 46 chromosomes, of which two are sex chromosomes). In some cases, the chromosome is missing in some cells but not others, a condition referred to as mosaicism.

There are characteristic physical abnormalities which affect many but not all people with Turner syndrome, such as short stature, swelling, broad chest, low hairline, low-set ears, and webbed necks.

Girls with Turner syndrome typically experience gonadal dysfunction (non-working ovaries), which results in amenorrhea (absence of menstrual cycle) and sterility. Concurrent health concerns may also be present, including congenital heart disease, hypothyroidism (reduced hormone secretion by the thyroid), diabetes, vision problems, hearing concerns, and many autoimmune diseases.

Finally, a specific pattern of cognitive deficits is often observed, with particular difficulties in visuospatial, mathematical, and memory areas.

Front 29

Define:

Aging
Mitochondrial theory of aging
Genetic theories of aging

Back 29

Aging: is complex and may involve cell damage due to free radicals as a result of normal cell metabolism or cell injury due to radiation and chemical pollutants.

Mitochondrial theory of aging: involves a decrease of energy production by
radical-damaged mitochondria which weakens and ages the cell. Vitamins C and E act as antioxidants and prevent excessive production of free radicals. The same is true with caloric intake restriction due
to lowering the metabolic rate which slows aging.

Genetic Theories of Aging: proposes that aging is programmed into our genes (senescence).

Front 30

What is a

Neoplasm

Benign Neoplasm

malignant neoplasm or cancer

Back 30

A cell mass which divides and multiplies abnormally; it is also called a neoplasm.
Neoplasms are classified as Benign or Malignant.


Benign neoplasm or tumor is a local mass, remains compacted, often encapsulated, grows
slowly and seldom kills the host.

Malignant neoplasm or cancer is a mass which is not-capsulated and grows rapidly.
Cells here are immature and they invade their surrounding.
These give metastasis (invading other tissues) by means of lymphatics and/or blood

Front 31

What are


Oncogenes?

Back 31

Oncogenes are the result of mutations of certain regulatory genes, called protooncogenes, which normally stimulate or inhibit cell proliferation and development.

Genetic accidents or viruses may lead to the formation of oncogenes.

Oncogenes dominate the normal alleles (proto-oncogenes), causing deregulation of cell division, which leads to a cancerous state.

Bladder cancer and acute myelogenous leukemia are caused by occogenes.

Front 32

What are the 4 types of tissue?

Back 32

Muscle, Nervous, Epithelial, and connective tissues

Front 33

What are the 3 types of muscle tissue and what are their main functions?

Back 33

Skeletal muscle:
a type of striated muscle, usually attached to the skeleton. Skeletal muscles are used to create movement, by applying force to bones and joints; via contraction

Smooth muscle: Smooth muscle is found within the walls of organs and structures such as the esophagus, stomach, intestines, bronchi, uterus, urethra, bladder, and blood vessels, and unlike skeletal muscle, smooth muscle is not under conscious control.

Cardiac muscle: is also an "involuntary muscle" but is a specialized kind of muscle found only within the heart.

Front 34

What is nervous tissue specialized to?

Back 34

Nervous tissue is specialized to:
react to stimuli and to conduct impulses to various organs in the body which bring about response to the stimulus.

Front 35

What type of cells is nerve tissue composed of mainly?

Back 35

Neurons, which are found in the spinal cord, peripheral nerves, that branch throughout the body.

Front 36

Are neurons easily stimulated and do they transmit impulses very rapidly?

Back 36

Yes

Front 37

Define:

Epineurium

Perineurium

Endoneurium

Back 37

Epineurium : A sheath of dense connective tissue, that surrounds the nerve.

Perineurium: the sheath of connective tissue surrounding a bundle (fascicle) of nerve fibers within a nerve.

Endoneurium: which consists of a thin layer of loose connective tissue, surrounds the individual nerve fibers.

Front 38

What the 8 main functions of the Epithelial tissue?

Back 38

1. Protection: Epithelial cells from the skin protect underlying tissue from mechanical injury, harmful chemicals, invading bacteria and from excessive loss of water.


2. Sensation Sensory stimuli: penetrate specialized epithelial cells. Specialized epithelial tissue containing sensory nerve endings is found in the skin, eyes, ears, nose and on the tongue.


3. Secretion In glands:, epithelial tissue is specialized to secrete specific chemical substances such as enzymes, hormones.

4. Absorption: Certain epithelial cells lining the small intestine absorb nutrients from the digestion of food.


5.Excretion: Epithelial tissues in the kidney excrete waste products from the body and reabsorb needed materials from the urine. Sweat is also excreted from the body by epithelial cells in the sweat glands.


6. Diffusion: Simple epithelium promotes the diffusion of gases, liquids and nutrients. Because they form such a thin lining, they are ideal for the diffusion of gases (eg. walls of capillaries and lungs).


7. Cleaning: Ciliated epithelium assists in removing dust particles and foreign bodies which have entered the air passages.


8. Reduces Friction: The smooth, tightly-interlocking, epithelial cells that line the entire circulatory system reduce friction between the blood and the walls of the blood vessels.

Front 39

What are epithelial tissue and glands?

Back 39

Epithelial are sheets of cells that cover body surfaces and cavities.

Their function is to protect the body
(such as the skin) or sensory reception such as the olfactory epithelial cells, absorption, such as the internal covering cells of the intestine, ion transport and filtration, like the cells covering various tubules in the kidney.

Glands are also covered internally by epithelial cells which function
in secretion of their products.

Front 40

What are the 3 shapes (classifications) of epithelial cells?

Back 40

1- Squamous (flat)
2- Cuboidal (cube like)
3- Columnar (tall and rod-like)

Front 41

Define:

Simple

Stratified

Back 41

Simple: one layer
Stratified: more than one layer

Front 42

What is a squamous cell?

Back 42

an epithelial cell that is flat like a plate and form a single layer of epithelial tissue

The surface squamous cells are irregularly shaped and very flat; so flat that the cell nucleus sometimes creates a bump in the surface of the cell.

Gases and other substances can easily diffuse across squamous cells to the underlying basement membrane, and because of their smooth surface, liquids can quickly flow over them.

As such, simple squamous epithelia are seen lining body cavities and capillaries to reduce friction, as well as lining the alveoli to facilitate gas exchange.

Front 43

What two ways are glands classified?

Back 43

Glands of the body are classified as either exocrine or endocrine types.

Front 44

Define:

Endocrine Glands

Exocrine Glands

Back 44

*An Exocrine gland is distinguished by the fact that it excretes its essential product by way of a duct to some environment external to itself, be it either inside the body or on a surface of the body.

Examples of exocrine glands include the sweat glands, salivary glands, mammary glands, and liver.


*Endocrine gland is its counterpart. It secretes its essential product (hormones) without the use of a duct directly into the bloodstream or else by diffusion into its surrounding tissue (paracrine signaling) where it often affects only target cells near the release site.

Examples of endocrine glands include the adrenal glands, located atop the kidneys and responsible for the secretion of certain hormones such as adrenaline, cortisol and others. The testes, in males and ovaries in females are not only gonads, organs which generate male and female germ cells respectively, but are also endocrine glands in that they produce various androgens and estrogens together known as steroidal sex hormones.

Front 45

Exocrine Glands release their products into ducts in three different ways...Define them:

1- merocrine
2-apocrine
3-holocrine

Back 45

1. Merocrine: The most common method. A cell is classified as merocrine if the secretions of that cell are excreted via exocytosis (contents released from cell) from secretory cells into an epithelial-walled duct or ducts and thence onto a bodily surface or into the lumen.

2. Apocrine: the apical portions of cells are pinched off and lost during the secretory process.  This results in a secretory product that contains a variety of molecular components including those of the membrane.  Mammary glands release their products in this manner.

3. holocrine: The third type of secretory release, holocrine, involves death of the cell.  The secretory cell is released and as it breaks apart, the contents of the cell become the secretory product.

This mode of secretion results in the most complex secretory product.  Some sweat glands located in the axillae, pubic areas, and around the areoli of the breasts release their products in this manner.  Sebaceous glands also are of this type.

Front 46

There are 3 factors that hold epithelial cells together:

Back 46

1. Adhesion
2. Contours of adjacent cell membranes
3. Special cell junctions

Which include:
-Tight junctions
-Adhering junctions
-desmosomes
-gap junctions

Front 47

What are Tight junctions (zona occludens)?

Back 47

Go back to Tissues slide 26ish

Front 48

What is Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome?

Back 48

Ehlers–Danlos syndrome (EDS) is an inherited connective tissue disorder with different presentations that have been classified into several primary types. EDS is caused by a defect in the structure, production, or processing of collagen or proteins that interact with collagen. (1 and 3)

The collagen in connective tissue helps tissues resist deformation. Collagen is an important contributor to the physical strength of skin, joints, muscles, ligaments, blood vessels and visceral organs; abnormal collagen renders these structures more elastic. Depending on the individual, the severity of the mutation can vary from mild to life-threatening. There is no cure, and treatment is supportive, including close monitoring of the digestive, excretory and particularly the cardiovascular systems.

Front 49

What are integrins?

Back 49

Integrins are transmembrane receptors that mediate the attachment between a cell and its surroundings, such as other cells or the extracellular matrix (ECM). In signal transduction, integrins pass information about the chemical composition and mechanical status of the ECM into the cell. Therefore, in addition to transmitting mechanical forces across otherwise vulnerable membranes, they are involved in cell signaling and the regulation of cell cycle, shape, and motility.
Typically, receptors inform a cell of the molecules in its environment and the cell responds. Not only do integrins perform this outside-in signaling, but they also operate an inside-out mode. Thus, they transduce information from the ECM to the cell as well as reveal the status of the cell to the outside, allowing rapid and flexible responses to changes in the environment, for example to allow blood coagulation by platelets.

There are many types of integrin, and many cells have multiple types on their surface. Integrins are of vital importance to all animals and have been found in all animals investigated, from sponges to mammals. Integrins have been extensively studied in humans.

Integrins work alongside other proteins such as cadherins, immunoglobulin superfamily cell adhesion molecules, selectins and syndecans to mediate cell–cell and cell–matrix interaction and communication. Integrins bind cell surface and ECM components such as fibronectin, vitronectin, collagen, and laminin.

Front 50

What is the extra cellular matrix (ECM)?

Back 50

In biology, the extracellular matrix (ECM) is the extracellular part of multicellular structure (e.g., organisms, tissues, biofilms) that typically provides structural and biochemical support to the surrounding cells.

Because multicellularity evolved independently in different multicellular lineages, the composition of ECM varies between multicellular structures; however, cell adhesion, cell-to-cell communication and differentiation are common functions of the ECM.

The animal extracellular matrix includes the interstitial matrix and the basement membrane.

Front 51

What are 2 categories of Carrier-mediated transport?

Back 51

a. facilitated diffusion
b. active transport

Front 52

What types of molecules are capable of diffusing through the phospholipid bilayer passively?

Back 52

Small molecules, such ions, (iodine)...lipid-soluble molecules (fat soluble that dissolve in the lipid portion of the bilayer...remember like-dissolves like...so hydrophobic molecules dissolve hydrophobic molecules). and water (osmosis).

Lipid soluble substances can enter a cell by dissolving in the lipid portion of the membrane and diffusing through it. The greater the lipid solubility, the more readily a molecule will pass through the membrane, i.e., the greater will be the flux for a given concentration difference

Water soluble, lipid-insoluble substances by definition cannot pass through membranes by dissolving in the lipids. How do they get through? There must be water-filled channels or pores spanning the membrane through which these substances may diffuse.






LIPIDS

Each lipid molecule has a polar head and two non-polar tails. The polarity in the head results from the molecular interaction between the oppositely charged phosphate and nitrogen groups. The resulting dipole makes this part of of the molecule polar and, therefore, water soluble. It is called the hydrophilic, or water-loving, portion of the lipid molecule. In contrast, the two tails of each lipid molecule are non-polar and water insoluble. They are composed of long-chain fatty acids which are hydrophobic, or water-hating, in nature. The tails are joined to a backbone molecule which, in turn, is attached to the polar head.

Because they each contain a hydrophilic and hydrophobic end, lipid molecules naturally form a bilayered membrane. The polar, water-soluble heads point toward the water on the inside and outside of the cell, while the non-polar, fatty-acid tails point away from water and toward the membrane interior. The resulting bilayer of lipid molecules contains an oily inner core, It functions as a selective barrier permeable to lipid-soluble substances and impermeable to polar, water-soluble substances.

Front 53

What is passive transport and in which direction is the concentration gradient?

Back 53

It is the net movement of molecules and ions across a membrane from higher to lower concentration, it does not require metabolic energy. Passive transport includes simple diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion

Front 54

What is active transport?

Back 54

Active transport is net movement across a membrane that occurs against a concentration gradient (to the region of higher concentration). Active transport requires metabolic energy (ATP) and involves specific carrier proteins.

Front 55

What factors increase permeability in simple diffusion?

Back 55

a. smaller molecules increases rate of diffusion
b. smaller membrane thickness
c. high oil/water partition coefficient of the solute increases solubility in the lipid of the membrane.

Front 56

What molecules have the highest permeabilities in lipid membranes?

Back 56

Small hydrophobic solutes have the highest permeabilities in lipid membranes.

Front 57

How do hydrophilic substances cross the cell membrane?

Back 57

Hydrophilic solutes must cross cell membranes through water-filled channels, or pores. If the solute is an ion, then its flux will depend on both the concentration difference and the potential difference across the membrane.

This is because the lipid bilayer is composed of fatty acid tails which are not water soluble (think oil and vinegar)

Front 58

How is stereospecificity important in Carrier-mediated transport?

Back 58

For example, D-glucose (the natural isomer) is transported by facilitated diffusion, but the L-glucose isomer is not. Simple diffusion, however, would not distinguish between the two isomers because it does not involve a carrier.

When it comes to protein molecules, structure and function go hand in hand. So, proteins are very highly picky about what molecules they will transport.

Front 59

How is saturation important in Carrier-mediated transport?

Back 59

The transport rate increases as the concentration of the solute increases, until the carriers are saturated. (Collision theory?)

The transport maximum (™) is analogous to the maximum velocity (V max) in enzyme kinetics.

Front 60

What are some characteristics of facilitated diffusion? [TRANSMEMBRANE PROTEIN CHANNELS]

Back 60

Not to be confused with diffusion. Facilitated diffusion is not a type of diffusion (thermal motion) but a type of transport process.

Facilitated diffusion (also known as facilitated transport or passive-mediated transport) is the process of spontaneous passive transport (as opposed to active transport) of molecules or ions across a biological membrane via specific transmembrane integral proteins.

Being passive, facilitated transport does not involve the use of chemical energy; rather, molecules and ions move down their concentration gradient. Facilitated diffusion is not a form of diffusion, however it is a transport process in which molecules or ions which would otherwise cross the membrane with great difficulty exploit transmembrane protein channels to help them cross this membrane.

Polar molecules and charged ions dissolved in water cannot diffuse freely across the plasma membrane due to the hydrophobic nature of the fatty acid tails of phospholipids that make up the lipid bilayers. Only small non-polar molecules, such as oxygen can diffuse easily across the membrane. Hence, all polar molecules are transported across membranes by proteins that form transmembrane channels. These channels are gated, enabling them to open and close and thus regulating the flow of ions or small polar molecules. Larger molecules are transported by transmembrane carrier proteins, such as permeases that change their conformation as the molecules are carried through, for example glucose or amino acids. Non-Polar molecules, such as retinol or lipids are poorly soluble in water. They are transported through aqueous compartments of cells or through extracellular space by water-soluble carriers as retinol binding protein

Glucose, sodium ions and chloride ions are just a few examples of molecules and ions that must efficiently cross the plasma membrane but to which the lipid bilayer of the membrane is virtually impermeable. Their transport must therefore be "facilitated" by proteins that span the membrane and provide an alternative route or bypass.










1. Characteristics of facilitated diffusion
-occurs down an electrochemical gradient (downhill), similar to simple diffusion.
-does not require metabolic energy and therefore is passive.
–is more rapid than simple diffusion.
-is carrier-mediated and therefore exhibits stereospecificity, saturation, and competition.

Front 61

What is an example of facilitated diffusion? (Diabetes)

Back 61

Example of facilitated diffusion
-glucose transport in muscle and adipose cells in downhill is carrier-mediated, and is inhibited by sugars such as galactose, therefore, it is categorized as facilitated diffusion. In diabetes mellitus, glucose uptake by muscle and adipose cells is impaired because the carriers for facilitated diffusion of glucose require insulin.

Front 62

What are some characteristics of PRIMARY ACTIVE transport?

Back 62

1. characteristics of primary active transport
-occurs against an electrochemical gradient (uphill).
-requires direct input of metabolic energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and therefore is active.
-is carrier-mediated and therefore exhibits stereospecificity, saturation, and competition.

Front 63

What is an example of Primary Active transport? (Na+ K+ pumps)

Back 63

in cell membranes transports Na+ from intracellular to extracellular fluid and K+ from extracellular to IC fluid, it maintains low intracellular Na+ and high intracellular K+.
-Both Na+ and K+ are transported against their electrochemical gradients.
-Energy (ATP) is provided.
-The stoichiometry is 3 Na+/2 K+.
-Specific inhibitors of Na+, K+-atpase are the cardiac glycoside drugs ouabain and digitals.

Front 64

What type of proteins function in cell-cell signaling, reception, and can form channels for ions?

Back 64

Integral

Front 65

What is the normal blood glucose level?

Back 65

70-120 mg/ dL

Front 66

What is the function of glycocalyx?

Back 66

Cell-cell recognition

Front 67

Which of the following correctly describes the plasmalemma?

Back 67

Phospholipid bilayer

Front 68

What types of molecules can easily pass through the plasma membrane?

Back 68

Small, hydrophobic

Front 69

Acetylcholine is packed in a vesicle that is transmitted to the synapse for interaction to the next cell or muscle end plate. What type of transport is this?

Back 69

Exocytosis

Front 70

What can result in atherosclerosis and subsequent myocardial infarction?

Back 70

Familial hypercholesterolemia

Front 71

Where does protein synthesis occur?

Back 71

Rough ER and cytoplasm

Front 72

Which of the following is the precursor for progesterone?

Back 72

Cholesterol

Front 73

Where is ATP produced in mammalian cells?

Back 73

Mitochondria

Front 74

A child has an abnormal enlargement of the spleen, liver, and bone marrow. Tests indicate a buildup of glucocerebroside, an intermediate in glycolipid metabolism. What is the diagnosis?

Back 74

Gaucher’s Disease

Front 75

Free radicals are highly reactive and damage various parts of the cell. What enzyme helps neutralize free radicals, and where is it located?

Back 75

Catalase, peroxisome

Front 76

Which of the following is the largest polymer in the cytoskeleton?

Back 76

Microtubule

Front 77

Aneuploidy can result from meiotic or mitotic nondisjunction or omission. An adult has stunted growth, mental retardation, and has a history of cardiovascular problems. Genetic tests indicate a female genotype. Which syndrome is the adult most likely suffering from?

Back 77

Turner’s

Front 78

Which vitamins will slow aging by helping prevent damage to mitochondria?

Back 78

Vitamins C & E

Front 79

What are oncogenes?

Back 79

-Genes that affect cell growth and proliferation
-Intact genes that cause cancer when activated

Front 80

Hypocalcemia can result from an ionic imbalance. What is the primary symptom of hypocalcemia?

Back 80

Muscle fatigue

Front 81

Which types of muscle is innervated by the autonomic nervous system?

Back 81

Cardiac, smooth

Front 82

A Florida runner is sweating profusely after a long distance race. Which type of gland is most active during this process?

Back 82

Exocrine

Front 83

A patient’s blood test reveals glucose levels at 130mg/dL. The patient is given synthetic hormones. What type of hormone is most likely administered?

Back 83

Insulin

Front 84

A doctor treats an exceptionally tall, thin man, with long limbs and fingers. He is concerned that the man might be susceptible to a cardiovascular disorder, and tests him for a genetic condition. What chromosome is most likely mutated?

Back 84

15 (Marfan Syndrome)

Front 85

Which type(s) of collagen are defective in Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome?

Back 85

I and III

Front 86

The extracellular matrix is important for...?

Back 86

Cell adhesion (the binding of a cell to a surface)

Front 87

Which of the following are methods to improve simple diffusion?

Back 87

a. Increasing lipid content of solute
b. Decreasing size of solute
c. Decreasing membrane thickness

Front 88

Insulin mostly uses a ______ receptor to allow glucose transport into a cell.

Back 88

GLUT4

Front 89

The sodium potassium pump operates to establish the proper ion gradient around a cell to allow for proper physiologic reactions. Where does it send these ions, and in what concentrations?

Back 89

3 Na+ outside, 2K+ inside

Front 90

During hyperpolarization of the action potential, the cell attempts to restore its resting membrane potential. Which of the following drugs would prevent this from occurring?

Back 90

Ouabain

Front 91

Gastritis occurs from excess HCl in the stomach, which results in irritation. What ion forms an antiport with H+ that allows the acidity of the stomach to increase?

Back 91

K+

Front 92

A patient exhibits dehydration and has frequent bouts of diarrhea. A doctor notes his blood pressure is slightly high, at 130/90. An MRI reveals local inflammation in the pancreas and GI tract. There is also a buildup of mucus lining the epithelia. What is the diagnosis?

Back 92

Cystic fibrosis

Front 93

Which cranial nerve triggers a release in ADH from the posterior pituitary?

Back 93

CN 10

Front 94

Edema can be caused from…

Back 94

a. Albumin deficiency
b. Destruction of blood vessels
c. Lymphatic defect

Front 95

Which phase of the action potential occurs with voltage-gated Sodium channels opening, and an influx of Sodium into the neuron?

Back 95

Depolarization

Front 96

TTX blocks what ion’s channel?

Back 96

Na+

Front 97

True/False: A 2nd stimulus can occur during the absolute refractory period.

Back 97

FALSE

Front 98

True/False: Hyperkalemia results in a sharper drop during the repolarization phase, because more K+ is leaving the cell.

Back 98

FALSE

Front 99

What is a symptom of Myasthenia Gravis?

Back 99

Shortness of breath; (think respiratory muscle weaknesses)

Front 100

Pheochromocytoma is a tumor to the adrenal medulla. Patients with this condition undergo a 24-hr urine test for elevated levels of…

Back 100

VMA

Front 101

Parkinson’s can result from…

Back 101

Deficiency in dopamine

Front 102

What synthetic neurohormone is given to decrease prolactin levels?

Back 102

Dopamine

Front 103

Which of the following are almost always inhibitory neurotransmitters?

Back 103

GABA and Glycine

Front 104

True/False: The more H+ the stronger the acid.

Back 104

TRUE

Front 105

alactosemia is characterized as what type of disorder?

Back 105

Carbohydrate metabolism

Front 106

Marasmus results from malabsorption and maldigestion of what source of energy?

Back 106

Proteins

Front 107

True/False: The brain can use ketone bodies for energy.

Back 107

TRUE, but prefers glucose

Front 108

What is pseudostratified epithelium and why is it considered a false 'stratification'

Back 108

Because the way the nucleus are arranged, it looks like it has multiple layers but it is only simple epithelial tissue