Human Memory

Front 1

Ebbinghaus

Back 1

-Tested himself for two years
-Reduced bias by using nonsense syllables
-Learned that the more time you spend learning, the more you retain

Front 2

Underwood

Back 2

-Wanted to know the effect of repetition
-Used spaced and massed repetition
-Repetition increases memory, and spaced repetition works better
-Conclusions don't support total time hypothesis (how long you spend studying is how much you remember)

Front 3

Karpicke & Roediger

Back 3

-Had subjects study 40 English-Swahili words
-Had four test conditions that alternated testing and studying (dropping learned words or re-testing all words)
-Found that repeated testing is better than repeated studying

Front 4

Tulving, Schacter, & Stark

Back 4

-Tried to dissociate between implicit and explicit memory
-Had a time variable that affected explicit memory, not implicit
-Therefore, implicit memory is also separate from and more durable than explicit memory

Front 5

Warrington & Weiskrantz

Back 5

-Had amnesiacs do explicit and implicit tests
-Amnesiacs generally have an intact implicit memory
-Also further distinguishes or supports the difference between implicit/explicit memory systems

Front 6

Reber

Back 6

-Is there evidence of unconscious learning?
-Alternated variables of being rule-based and random; also alternated between explicit instructions that were true and misleading
-No explicit rule learning, but there is implicit rule learning

Front 7

Masters

Back 7

-Wanted to know about "choking," or more specifically how explicit knowledge hinders implicit knowledge
-Participants learned to knock ball in hole, and then stressed a certain population by having a pro golfer "watch" them
-Those who were put under pressure performed worse, which proves explicit knowledge hinders automated skills/implicit knowledge

Front 8

Jevons

Back 8

-Wanted to see how many objects he could track (iconic memory)
-When there were small amount of beans in the white box, he was fast and accurate
-Span of apprehension was 9

Front 9

Sperling

Back 9

-Had people report complicated information
-Showed array of #s and letters for 50 ms
-Reformulated procedure because a whole report takes too long, so devised the partial report
-Iconic memory decays very quickly, after one second we lose most information we saw

Front 10

Murdock

Back 10

-How are recency and primacy effects impacted by longer lists to remember?
-Primacy effect is weakened when we have to remember long lists of information

Front 11

Glanzer & Cunitz

Back 11

-Wanted to know if long term memory and short term memory are separate
-Added distracting task to affect memory processes
-Weakened recency effect

Front 12

Watkins, Neath, & Sechler

Back 12

-Tested problems with modal model
-Distractor affected modal model because the recency effect reappears

Front 13

Baddeley and Hitch

Back 13

-Described a different kind of short-term
-Three kinds of working memory report to the central executive: phonological loop, visual-spatial memory, and an episodic buffer

Front 14

Shepard and Metzler

Back 14

-Did studies on mental rotation, spatial imaging
-Takes more time to decide on whether two shapes are similar if they have to rotate the image more

Front 15

Koslyn, Ball, & Reiser

Back 15

-More time required to study further and larger images
-Developed concept of mental travel between short and large distances

Front 16

Strayer and Johnston

Back 16

-Demonstrated that hands-free cell phone use interfered with the detection of traffic compared with listening to the radio
-Subjects had to track an image that flashed red and had to indicate when it turned red