Human Geo #4

Front 1

IRON

Back 1

- 1st industry to benefit from the steam engine
- Process demanded constant heating and cooling of ____

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COAL

Back 2

- Source of energy to operate ovens and steam engines.
- Wood was used prior to this
- Used high-energy ____

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TEXTILES

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- Transformed from a cottage industry to a concentrated factory system in late 1700s

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FOOD PROCESSING

Back 4

- Essential to feed factory workers not living on farms

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TRANSPORTATION

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- Critical for diffusion of this revolution
- Canals & railroads enabled new opportunities

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Where is industry distributed?

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- Approx. 3/4th's of worlds manufacturing clustered into 4 regions: Western & Eastern Europe, East Asia, and NA

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Subareas of Distribution for NA

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New England= cotton imported from southern states, then finished product was shipped to Europe

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Leading steel processing area in the 19th century?

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Pittsburgh - Lake Erie because it was close to coal and iron ore

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Industrial Revolution

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A series of improvements in industrial technology during the 18th century that transformed the process of manufacturing goods.
- Root was based in technology
- Originated in Northern England and Southern Scotland
- Resulted in new social, economic, and political inventions

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Cottage Industry

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Manufacturing based in homes rather than in a factory; commonly found prior to the Industrial Revolution.

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Situation Factors

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Involves transporting materials to and from factories.
- A manufacturer tries to put its factory as close as possible to both buyers and sellers
- If inputs cost more to transport than product, locate near input
- If product costs more, locate near customer

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Bulk-Reducing Industry

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An industry in which the final product weighs LESS or comprises a lower volume than the inputs.
- Can be from physical enviro.
- Can be parts or materials made by other companies
- Usually locate near the source of its inputs to keep transportation costs low
- PROXIMITY TO INPUTS
- EX. Copper

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Bulk-Gaining Industry

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An industry in which the final product weighs MORE or comprises a greater volume than the inputs.
- Televisions, refrigerators, AC
- Single-market manufacturers make products sold in 1 location
- Perishable products must be located near market, also
- PROXIMITY TO MARKETS
- EX. Beer Bottling

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Break-of-Bulk Point

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A location where transfer among transportation modes is possible.
- Imp. _____ are seaports and airports.
- Regardless of transportation modes, costs rise each time inputs/products transfer from one mode to another.

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Just-in-Time Delivery

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Shipment of parts and materials to arrive at a factory at the time they are needed.
- Very important for delivery of parts and raw materials to manufacturers of fabricated products.
- These materials arrive frequently (daily, even hourly)
- Reduces the $ that would normally go to wasteful inventory.
- 2 main disruptions: Labor unrest and Unpredictable disruptions

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Site Factors

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Result from unique characteristics of a location
- 3 main factors: Labor, Land, and Capital

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Labor-Intensive Industry

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Wages and other compensation paid to employees constitute a higher % of total expenses.

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New International Division of Labor

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Transfer of some types of jobs, especially those requiring low-paid, less-skilled workers, from more developed to less developed countries.

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Labor **Site Factors

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Ex. Chinese clothing workers; there are 150 million people employed in manufacturing in the world. China has around 20% and the U.S. 10%.
- Labor costs are about 11% of overall manufacturing costs in the US; looking @ higher #'s with labor-intensive industry
- in MDC's average wages= $20 per hour vs. LDC's (China)= $5

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Land **Site Factors

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Ex. Petrochemical Plant, in New Zealand, contemporary factories often require large tracts of land, bc they can operate more efficiently when laid out in one-story buildings.
- EARLY in IR, common to see multistory factories in heart of city; NOW located in suburban/rural areas to make room for 1-story buildings
- Raw materials received @ 1 end & products @ the other
- Trucks are main transportation so its efficient to be located near highways and beltways

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Capital **Site Factors

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Ex. Silicon Valley, California, Oracle Industries headquarters, has been availability of capital. High-tech industries are risky propositions, roughly 2/3rd's of them fail; 1/4th of all capital in U.S. is spent on new industries in Silicon Valley.
- Manufacturers borrow $ to get new factories or expand old ones
- Critical for LDC's bc most financial institutions are short of funds & have to seek them from banks in MDC's
- Can be turned down if they're a country an unstable political system, high debt, or bad economic policies

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Shipping Methods

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Longer distance transportation is CHEAPER per kilometer bc firms have to pay workers to load/unload goods no matter how far they travel.
- 4 ways to transport goods: Boat, Rail, Truck, or Air

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Trucks *Shipping Methods

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Used for short-distance delivery; can be loaded/unloaded more quickly and cheaply than trains.

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Trains *Shipping Methods

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Most often used for long distance shipping.

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Boats *Shipping Methods

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Can be attractive if water routed are available for very long distances

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Air *Shipping Methods

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Most expensive for short and long distances, but ensures quick delivery of small-bulk, high value packages.

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Steel Production

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Prominent example of bulk-REDUCING industry
- In U.S., industry was concentrated around Pittsburgh, but later mills were built around Lake Erie (Cleveland, Detroit)
- Westward spread due to discovery to ore in Mesabi Range (mountains in MN)
- This area soon became source of all iron used in US industry.

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Steel Restructuring

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Recently more ___ plants have closed then opened in US.
- Those left are located around S Lake Michigan & along E coast
- Today, located near major markets, not the raw materials
- Now there are ____ minimills that have captured 25% of US _____ market.

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Labor Unrest

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If there's a strike @ one of the supplier plants, it could shutdown the entire production in a few days.
- Could also be a strike of truckers or dockworkers in the logistics industry.

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Unpredictable Disruptions

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- Most common are weather-related.
- Blizzards/floods can close highways or damage factories.
- The grounding of all civilian planes following 9/11 prevented delivery of high-value parts.
- Closing the borders prevented trucks and trains from getting through.

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Auto Production

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- Carmakers account for only 30% of the value of their vehicles.
- BC of outsourcing, ind. companies supply the other 70% of the value.
- 75% of worlds final assembly plants are controlled by 7 carmakers
-- US: General Motors, Ford Chrysler
-- France: Renault, Peugeot
-- Japan: Toyota, Honda
- 75% of vehicles sold in US are assembled in US; remainder usually from Canada or Mexico.
- Most carmaking operations have clustered in "auto valley"

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"Auto Valley"

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- In the US, 1/2 of the parts made in US are made by US-owned companies
-1/4 in US made by foreign-owned transnational corps.
- 1/4 are made overseas and imported into the US

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Textile & Apparel Production

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- Prominent examples of labor-intensive industry
- Generally requires less skilled low-wage workers.
- This industry accounts for employment of a high % of the world's women in manufacturing.
- 3 main steps: Spinning of fibers to make yarn, weaving or knitting yarn into fabric, cutting and sewing fabric for assembling into clothes & other products

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"Spinning of fibers to make yarn"

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- Cotton in principle natural fiber (75% of the total) followed by wool.
- Natural fibers were the sole source but today synthetic fibers account for 75% and natural 25% of world thread production.
- Done in low-wage countries bc it's labor-intensive.

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"Weaving or knitting yarn into fabric"

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-Done by hand of loom.
- Total production costs are more for _____ then spinning.
- Weavers were traditional men bc of the physical work involved.

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"Cutting and sewing fabric for assembling into clothes & other products"

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- 4 main types of products: Garments, carpets, home products (bed linens/curtains), and industrial uses.
- Most of the 80 billion articles of clothing sold yearly are made in Asia.
- European and NA countries produce more woolens.

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Outsourcing

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A decision by a corporation to turn over much of the responsibility for production to independent suppliers.

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Maquiladora

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Factories built by US companies in Mexico near border to take advantage of lower labor costs.

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Fordist Production

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Form of mass production in which each worker is assigned one specific task to perform repeatedly.

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Post-Fordist Production

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Companies have flexible work rules like using teams of people to perform a variety of tasks.

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Distribution of cities

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177 urban areas have @ least 2 million inhabitants, 100 have @ least 3 million, 55 have @ least 5 million, 22 have @ least 10 million, and 3(Tokyo, NY, and Seoul) have @ least 20 million.

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Demographia

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Website that standardizes the meaning of "city"

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Babylonia

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- 2250 BC= Akkad and Lagash 1st, then Ur with a population of 65,000
- 1st city to have over 200,000 people (750 BC)

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Baghdad, Iraq

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1st city to have over 1 million (740 AD)

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London

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1st city to have over 5 million

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New York

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1st city to have over 10 million

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Tokyo

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1st city to have over 20 million

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Cities in History

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- Originated in multiple hearths and diffused into multipple directions.
- Urban centers have usually been in Middle East or East Asia since before documented history

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Where did cities originate?

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- Mesopotamia, in Fertile Crescent region
- Diffused in Egypt, China, and the Indus Valley of South Asia

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Largest Cities in History

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- The Sphinx near Memphis, Egypt was built around 3,500 years ago.
- Memphis was largest @ the time with 30,000 people
- Alexandria, Rome, and Constantinople
- Ch'ang-An, China (400,000) just before Rome
- Cordova (Spain), Fez (Morocco), Merv (Turkmenistan), and Nanking (China)

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Urbanization

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Process by which the population of cities grows.
- 2 main factors: an increase in the # of people living in cities, AND increase in the % of people living in cities.
- MDC's have higher % of people living in urban areas due to economic restructuring.
- LDC's have most of the large cities bc of their high natural increase rates
- % of people living in cities went from 3% in 1800s to 14% in 1900s
- In 2008, more people were living in urban areas than rural settlements for the 1st time in history (considered a measure of a county's development)

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Reasoning behind why more urban residents live in MDC's than LDC's

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BC of the economic changes in the past 2 centuries- Industrial Revolution and growth of services

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Economic Base

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- The distinctive economic structure of a city
- The communities collection of basic industries
- Derived from: Basic Industries and Nonbasic Industries
- Each type of basic activity has a diff. spatial distribution.
- Some are in the secondary sector like the auto industry

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Basic Industries

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Industries that sell their products or services primarily to consumers outside the settlement.
- The exporting done by this is what brings $ into the local economy and stimulates more nonbasic services for the area.
- New _____ attract new workers who bring their families, which then attracts more consumer services to the area to meet their needs.
- Stimulates new supermarkets, restaurants, and other consumer services.

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Nonbasic Industries

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Industries that sell their products primarily to consumers in the community.

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Spatial Distribution of Economic Bases

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- Some settlements employ higher %'s of people in the primary sector like mining.
- These settlements are usually located near reserves of coal, petroleum, etc.

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Economic Bases in the Secondary Sector

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- Ex. the Auto Industry
- These are usually clustered b/w northern Ohio and southeastern Wisconsin (Great Lakes region)

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Idea of Basic Industries

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Referred to manufacturing originally, but NOW we live in a postindustrial society.
- Steel was once the most important industry of Cleveland and Pittsburgh, but now hospitals and research in medical technology are more important.
- Northern and eastern cities were hubs for manufacturing, but are now business service centers. (They had to BC of the decline in manufacturing jobs.)

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Types of Services

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The service sector of the economy can be subdivided into 3 types: Consumer, Business, and Public Services
- All of THESE can be divided into sub-sectors.

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Consumer Services

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Provides services to individual consumers who want and can afford to pay for them.
- Accounts for almost 50% of jobs in US
- 4 main types: Retail, Education, Health, and Leisure

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Business Services

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- Main purpose is to facilitate other businesses.
- Accounts for about 25% of all jobs in the US
- 3 main types: Professional (engineering, law, architecture), Financial (banks, insurance companies, real estate), and Transportation (trucking, utilities-water, electricity)

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Public Services

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- Provides security and protection for citizens and businesses.
- About 16% of all US jobs
- Most work for federal, state, or local governments
- 9% of public school employees were counted under education instead
- Distinction among services is not absolute.

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Hierarchy of Business Services

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Business settlements disproportionally cluster in a few areas.
- London, New York, Paris, and Tokyo are leading world cities (BIG 4)
- Chicago, Frankfurt, Hong Kong, LA, Milan, and Singapore are world cities of lower importance than the Big Four.
- Predominantly in MDCs bc they're home to: Financial services (banking), Information-gathering services (media and publishing), and Professional services (law, medicine, science, education)
- These cities also contain a high share of the worlds arts, culture, and political power.

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Second Tier

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Command and control centers
- Headquarters of many large corporations, important educational, medical, and public institutions.
- EX. Dallas, Boston, Philadelphia, Atlanta, New Orleans

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Third Tier

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Specialized producer-service centers
- Research and Development activities related to specific industries.
- EX. Detroit, Pittsburgh, Rochester (office equipment), San Jose (semiconductors)

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Fourth Tier

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Dependent centers
- Relatively unskilled jobs in 4 categories: Resort/Retirement, Manufacturing, Industrial/Military, Mining

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Cities w/ jobs of Resort/Retirement

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Albuquerque, Orlando, Las Vegas

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Cities w/ jobs of Manufacturing

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Buffalo, Erie, Rockford

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Cities w/ jobs of Industrial/Military

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Huntsville, San Diego

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Cities w/ jobs of Mining

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Charleston, Duluth

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Gravity Model

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Predicts the best location is directly related to the # of people in the area and the distance people have to travel to get there.
- Geographers adapted this from physics.
- Retailers determine a site's profitability by calculating the range and threshold.

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Measures of Cultural Diversity

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- # of cultural facilities per capita
- % of gay men
- A "coolness" index (nightlife, bars, art galleries)

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Central Place Theory

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- 1st proposed in the 1930s by the German Walter Christaller
- Explains the location of consumer services
- Goal is to identify the most profitable location
- How goods/services are distributed and why a regular pattern exists.

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Central Place

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A market center for the exchange of goods and services by people attracted from the surrounding area.
- Has a market area, range, and threshold.

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Market Area (aka Hinterland)

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The area surrounding a service from which customers are attracted.
- A hexagon is the geometric shape of choice to represent the ______ in this theory.

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Range

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- The radius of a circle drawn to define a services market area.
- People will go short distances for everyday needs, not long distances for things like MLB games.
- People think of distance in terms of time and not linear measures such as miles.

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Threshold

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How the potential consumers inside the range are counted depends on the product.
- EX. Nightclubs-singles, Amusement parks-families

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Gravity Model

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A model that holds that the potential use of a service at a particular location is directly related to the number of people in a location and inversely related to the distance people must travel to reach the service.
- Predicts the best location is directly related to the # of people in the area and the distance people have to travel to get there.
- Geographers adapted this from physics.
- Retailers determine a site's profitability by calculating the range and threshold.

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Primate City

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The largest settlement in a country, if it has more than twice as many people as the 2nd-ranking settlement.

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Primate City Rule

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A pattern of settlements in a country, such that the largest settlement has more than twice as many people as the 2nd-ranking settlement.

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Rank-size Rule

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Pattern of settlement in a country, such that the nth largest settlement is 1/n the population of the largest settlement.

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Central Business District (CBD)

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- Most commonly known as the downtown area, and usually one of the oldest districts in a city (often the original site of the settlement)
- The best know and most visually distinctive area of most cities.
- 3 services found here: Consumer, Business and Public
- These services are attracted to the _____ BC of its accessibility.
- _____ is the easiest part of the city to reach form the rest of the region and is the focal point of the region’s transportation network.
- Land here is used more intensively than in any other part of the city.
-Underground network of garages, utilities, docks, walkways, transit lines, etc.
- High-rise structures= more economically feasible here BC don't take up as much space.

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Consumer Services: CBD

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Serve the people who work in the CBD and shop during lunch or working hours.
- EX. Office supplies, clothing, dry cleaning, photocopying
- Large department stores were once there

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Business Services: CBD

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Services located in the CBD to facilitate rapid communication or breaking news.
- EX. marketing, advertising, banking, journalism, law
- Some people depend on closeness to professional colleagues (lawyers located near courts or govt. offices)
- Limited building sites makes land high-value

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Public Services: CBD

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Services that give equal access to those living in all parts of town.
- EX. courts, City Hall, libraries
- BC these facilities bring in lots of people, esp. out-of-towners, you'll find more hotels

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What is a City?

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Defines an urban settlement that has been legally incorporated into an independent, self-governing unit.  
- Has locally elected officials, the ability to raise taxes , and responsibility for providing essential services.

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Urbanized Area?

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The central city and its surrounding suburbs.
- Approximately 70% of americans live in ___ including about 30% in central cities and 40% in surrounding jurisdictions.

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Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA)

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A method of measuring the functional area of a city, created by the US Census Bureau.
- Includes the following: an urbanized area with a pop. of @ least 50,000, the county within which the city is located, adjacent counties with high pop. densities, and a large % of residents working in the central city’s county.

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Features of some MSA's

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Sometimes adjacent _____ overlap BC they may share a county b/w 2 central cities that sends many commuters to each ___.
- EX. In the NE, large ___are so close together that they form 1 continuous urban complex (N of Boston to S of DC)
- Also, the southern Great Lakes b/w Chicago & Milwaukee on the W and Pittsburgh on the E

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Megalopolis

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The name given to the MSA in the NE (north of Boston to south of DC)
- Greek for "great city" or sometimes called the BosWash Corridor.

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Annexation

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The process of legally adding land area to a city.
(Usually land is added if the majority of those in the affected area vote in favor of doing so)

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Fragmented Government

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- There are MANY urban problems (traffic, solid-waste, disposal, affordable housing) which are regional in scale.
- The _______ of our local governments make it difficult to address these problems.
- In the US cities grow through Annexation

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Annexation: Today vs. the Past

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In the past people wanted this bc the city offered better services (water supply, trash pickup, public transportation).
- Today, they're less likely to ___ bc residents don't want to pay city taxes.
- They would rather remain legally ind. of the city and organize their own services.
- The # of local govts. exceeds 1,400 in NYC and 1,100 in the Chicago area.

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Example of Fragmented Govt.

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Long Island, NY
- 90 miles long and 15 miles wide
- Has 2 counties, 2 cities, 13 towns, 95 villages, 127 school districts, 500 special districts for things like garbage collection, and 800 local governments

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Metropolitan Government

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The large # of local government units has led to calls for a _____ that could coordinate--if not replace--the numerous local governments in an urban area.
- 2 kinds: Federations and Consolidations

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Federations

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Toronto has a metropolitan government created in 1953 through ___ of 13 municipalities.

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Consolidations

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Indianapolis and Miami have ____ city and county govts.
- Government functions that were once handled separately by the City of Indianapolis and Marion County are combined into a joint operation in the same office building.

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Models of Internal Structure

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Sociologists, economists, and geographers developed 3 models to help explain where diff types of people live in urban areas.
- The Concentric Zone Model, the Sector Model, and the Multiple Nuclei Model
- These models are meant to describe the internal social structure of cities.
- Argue that cities grow in rings, wedges, and nodes.
- The 3 models together hemp explain where people with diff. social characteristics live within cities.

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The Concentric Zone Model

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Created in 1923 by sociologist E.W. Burgess
- Shows that a city grows outward from the central area
1) CBD
2)Zone of Transition
3)Zone of ind. workers' homes
4)Zone of Better Resources
5)Commuter's Zone

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The Sector Model

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Developed in 1939 by land economist Homer Hoyt
- States that as a city grows, activities expand outward in a wedge from the center.
- The best housing is found in a corridor from downtown to the outer edge of the city.
- Industrial/Retailing activities usually develop along good transportation lines.
1) CBD
2) Transportation & Industry
3) Low-calss residential
4) Medium-class residential
5) High-class residential

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The Multiple Nuclei Model

Back 101

Developed by geographers Harris & Ullman in 1945
- States that a city consists of many nodes, or centers, around which different types of people and activities cluster.
- A university node may attract bookstores and pizzerias.
- Incompatible land-use activities avoid similar locations.
1)CBD
2)Wholesale, light manufacturing
3)Low-class residential
4)Medium residential
5)High residential
6)Heavy manufacturing
7)Outlying business district
8)Residential suburb
9)Industrial suburb

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Census Tracts

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Urban areas in the US are divided into ____.
- ____ roughly correspond to neighborhood boundaries and contain about 5,000 residents
- Examples of the info published includes median family income, # of nonwhites, and % of adults who finished high school.

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Social Area Analysis

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EX. Two families have the same income and ethnic background, but one rents and one owns.
-The Ring Model puts the owner in the outer ring and the renter in the inner ring.
-The Sector Model says the higher income family won't live in the same sector as the other.
-The Multiple Nuclei Model says that people with the same ethnic/racial background live near each other.

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Precolonial Cities

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Often had a religious core like a temple or mosque
- EX. the Aztecs & Tenochtitlan

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Colonial Cities

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When Europeans gained control, they destroyed indigenous ones and rebuilt with a standardized plan.
- Large public squares and wide streets

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Squatter Settlements

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Illegally established residences on land
- They don't own or rent with homemade structures to live in

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Suburbanization

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Most Americans live in suburbs, and more than 90% of the respondents in most polls prefer them to the inner city.
- Malls have become centers for activities.

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Suburban Sprawl

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Progressive spread of development over the landscape.
- US suburbs are characterized by these
- Developers buy cheap land in isolated areas to build on.

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What features do suburbs have that attracts people to them?

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- Detached housing w/ garages
- Private yards
- Parking spaces @ no charge
- Opportunity 4 home ownership
- Relaxation from urban living

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Inner-City Challenges

Back 110

Low-income residents concentrate in the ___ neighborhoods in the US
- These residents are often called UNDERCLASS bc they're trapped in an unending cycle of hardships:
1) In-adequate Job Skills
2)Culture of Poverty
3)Crime
4)Homelessness
5)Deteriorated Housing
6)Poverty

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In-adequate Job Skills

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Inner-city residents lack the technical skills needed for most jobs because fewer than half complete high school.

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Culture of Poverty

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Unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of the babies in US inner city neighborhoods, and 80% live with only one parent.  Because of inadequate child care services, single mothers may be forced to choose between working to generate income and staying at home to care of the children.

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Crime

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Trapped in a hopeless environment, some inner city residents turn to drug's
- Some drug users obtain money through criminal activities.

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Deteriorating Housing

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Inner city housing is subdivided by absentee landlords into apartments for low income families, a process known as filtering.  Landlords stop maintaining houses when the rent they collect is less than the maintenance cost.

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Poverty

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The concentration of low income residents in inner city neighborhoods of central cities has produced financial problems.

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Gentrification

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The process by which middle-class people move into deteriorated inner-city neighborhoods and renovate the housing.
- Bc renovating an old inner city house can be nearly as expensive as buying a new one in the suburbs, cities encourage the process by providing low cost loans and tax breaks.

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Smart Growth

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Legislation and regulations to limit suburban sprawl and preserve farmland.

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Filtering

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A process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment.