Human Factors 2

Front 1

Types of Patterns (2)

Back 1

1. Verbal
2. Non-verbal

Front 2

Types of Verbal Patterns

Back 2

1. Print (Visual)
2. Speech (Auditory)

Front 3

Types of Non-Verbal Patterns

Back 3

1. Pictures (Visual)
2. Tones (Auditory)

Front 4

Pattern Recognition

Back 4

Identify input patterns as belonging to a class of stored representations

Front 5

Hierarchical Feature Analysis (Print) (5)

Back 5

Perceived Word
Word Analyzers
Letter Analyzers
Feature Analyzers
Stimulus

Front 6

Process each letter only to the level that ______ feature is not found

Back 6

Conflicting
ex:
OGCQC
GOCGC
OCQCO
CXOGQ
GOGOQ

Front 7

LaBerge Studt (1973)

Back 7

IV 1 - Stimulus Type (Letters vs Symbols)
IV 2 - Attention (Expected vs. Unexpected)

Results when expected no difference
when unexpected, symbols took longer

Front 8

Familiar letters don't require ______, they are processed automatically

Back 8

feature level processing

Front 9

Symbols require ________ because they are less familiar

Back 9

feature level processing

Front 10

Shiffrin & Sneider (1977)

Back 10

participants search for a target letter among various size arrays

Results: performance was slower as the array size grew but after thousands of trials performance remained the same

Front 11

Unitization

Back 11

individual features are combined and detected as a unit

Front 12

When letters were always targets _______, byt when they were both targets and non-targets _______

(Shiffrin & Sneider, 1977)

Back 12

automatic processing developed;
did not occur

Front 13

Haber & Schindler (1981)

Back 13

participants proofread text

Results: misspellings with similar word shape were detected less

Front 14

Bottom-Up Word Processing

Back 14

Stimulus -> Words (unitization)
Stimulus -> Letters

Front 15

Word Superiority Effect (Reicher, 1969)

Back 15

Easier to recognize letters in words rather than random sequences or alone

Front 16

Sentence Processing (Top-Down) (2)

Back 16

1. Words scanned by a series of fixations
2. Preceding words are used as context

Front 17

McKonkie & Raynor (1974)

Back 17

Used fixation-guided text display to determine how many proceeding characters are processed
reading speed was disrupted when scrambled manipulated number of characters to the right was 10

Front 18

Monkie, et al. (1982)

Back 18

certain letters within words were switched to the right and switched letter changed meaning of sentence
participants did not notice and change did not shift perception of sentence meaning

conclusion: characters to the right are used to guide fixation patterns but not used for comprehension

Front 19

Ways to promote unitization (4)

Back 19

1. Use prototypical features
2. Use training to produce automatic processing
3. Provide word shape information (eg. lower case)
4. Avoid abbreviations

Front 20

Automatic processing (unitization) requires fewer _________

Back 20

attentional resources

Front 21

Why promote unitization? (2)

Back 21

1. Uses fewer attentional resources
2. Creates personalized alerting

Front 22

Top-Down improves ______ and is _______
Bottom-Up improves ______ and is _______

Back 22

sensory quality; context driven
contextual quality; data driven

Front 23

Shannon-Fano Principle (coding)

Back 23

1. length of physical message should be proportional to the amount of information provided
2. low-probability message provide more information, so they should be long

ex:
N = Normal vs. Hot = Hot

Front 24

Redundancy can ensure _______

Back 24

security

ex: Alpha, Bravo, Charlie, Delta, etc.

Front 25

Rapid Serial Visual Presentation (RSVP) (Forster, 1970) (Potter, et al., 1980)

Back 25

- text displayed rapidly one word at a time
- up to 12 words/sec
- does not require scanning or fixations
- comprehensions may be reduced for long messages

Front 26

General Guidelines to Comprehensions (3)

Back 26

1. State what is desired directly (no excess words)
2. Use familiar words
3. Use explicit statements (no inferences)

Front 27

Providing Context of Comphrehension (2)

Back 27

1. Sets the Stage for Comprehending Text (title, picture, etc.)
-Bransford & Johnson (1972) - providing picture or descriptive title improved comprehension for laundry
2. Must be placed before message
-Bower et al. (1969) - context only aids comprehension if it occurs prior to presentation material

Front 28

Comprehension suffers when reader must _______ the meaning of statements

Back 28

logically reverse

ex.
the green light should always be one/ the green light should never be off

Front 29

Statements that contain ______ take longer to process

Back 29

negatives

ex. right turn only vs. no left turns

Front 30

Order Congruence

Back 30

Instructions should be congruent with events

Front 31

Better to indicate a system state by _______ of a cue, rather than by ______ of one

Back 31

presence; absence

Front 32

Fowler (1980)

Back 32

plane crash- R symbol always present unless radar is lost, then R disappears

Much more effective to turn on an R symbol only when radar is lost (emergency state)

Front 33

Print vs. Speech Patterns

Back 33

1. Words in speech spoken in serial, forced pace manner
2. Speech signal is continuous

Front 34

Speech signals can be represented by a ________

Back 34

spectogram

Front 35

Invariance Problem

Back 35

phsyical forms of phonemes can be highly depended on context

Front 36

Phonemes can be specified in terms of combinations of ________

Back 36

articulatory features

ex) ba (bilabial), da (apical), ga (velar)

Front 37

Speech Perception Feature Analysis

Back 37

Sentences
^
Words
^
Phonemes
^
Features
^
Stimulus

Front 38

Miller (1947)

Back 38

investigated intelligibility of speech as a function of
- noise intensity (db)
- noise bandwidth
- noise frequency

Front 39

Miller, et al. (1947)

Back 39

Varied size of vocabulary and noise level

as size of vocabulary increases, performance decreased

Front 40

Miller & Isard (1963) Language Constraints

Back 40

- presented strings of words through headphones
- measured detection performance

Bottom-Up Stimulus Quality
- varied the amount of background "noise"

Top-Down Context (Wins)
- words alone
- words in sentences

Front 41

Phoneme Restoration Effect (Warren, 1970)

Back 41

Participants heard sentence but a cough was replaced an "s" sound

Participants still said they heard the "s" sound

Top-Down Processing Wins

Front 42

Simultaneous Messages (5)

Back 42

1. Cocktail Party Effect
2. Amount of Separation between sources determines interference (Poulton, 1953; Spieth, et al., 1954)
3. Distinctiveness of voices (Broadbbent, 1953)
4. We can selectively attend to one message and not process the other (Cherry, 1953)
5. Person's name in the ignored channel does get through (Moray, 1959)

Front 43

Cocktail Party Effect

Back 43

the ability to focus on particular auditory attention while filtering out other a range of stimuli

Front 44

Analogue

Back 44

direct relationship between the pattern and the stimulus

Front 45

Non-Verbal processing occurs more ______

Back 45

holistically- perceived as a unified object, rather than a set of parts

Front 46

Cooper (1976)

Back 46

Found that processing style varies by person

Front 47

Processing Style Type 1

Back 47

process objects holistically

Front 48

Processing Style Type 2

Back 48

process objects in a more analytically (feature by feature) manner

Front 49

Holistic Processing (3)

Back 49

1. Surrounding Contours - objects are defined by shape
(top-down processing allows us to complete shapes even when contours are incomplete)

2. Correlated Attributes - attributes of shapes vary with each other, even when the shape changes size, position, etc.

3. Familiarity - context can play a role in top-down processing of objects

Front 50

Holistic displays must be used with ______

Back 50

caution - can render selective perception more difficult

operator must be able to analyze in detail the state of one particular attribute

Front 51

Perceptual Schema

Back 51

assign objects to perceptual categories learned through experience
cannot be defined y any particular feature

Front 52

Attentional Spotlight (perceptual attention)

Back 52

focus on particular information for further processing

Front 53

Selective Attention

Back 53

ability to select specific aspects of the environment to focus on at a given time

Front 54

Types of Selective Attention (2)

Back 54

1. Supervisory - person must scan multiple sources of info in serial fashion
2. Target Search - person must scan environment for one or more pieces of information

Front 55

Visual Dominance

Back 55

humans bias towards visual modality

Front 56

Target Search driven somewhat by ______

Back 56

expectancy - people fixate first and most frequently on areas they think useful information will be found

Front 57

External Factors That Affect Target Search (3)

Back 57

1. Items to bright, large, colorful, etc.
2. People tend to scan 2D areas in the upper left first
3. People tend to spend more time scanning center rather than edges

Front 58

Divived Attention

Back 58

the ability to extract information from multiple sources simultaneously

Front 59

Focused Attention

Back 59

the ability to extract information from a single source while ignoring parallel sources

Front 60

Channel Model (Treisman, 1969)

Back 60

all events with a single channel are processed in parallel

information across channels must be processed serially

Front 61

Definition of Channel

Back 61

1. Location
2. Distance
3. Audition (pitch, semantic content)

Front 62

Parallel Processing is advantageous when _____ (2)

Back 62

1. two separate tasks are being performed
2. two sources of information are redundant

Front 63

Parallel Processing is a disadvantage when ______

Back 63

1. there is resource competition
2. two stimuli with incompatible implications for action

Front 64

Single Resource Theory

Back 64

single pool of resources drawn upon as needed by various operation

Front 65

Controlled Processing

Back 65

used when we have to process relatively unfamiliar or complex info

Front 66

Automatic Processing

Back 66

task may require little or no resource to carry out

Front 67

Time-Line Analysis

Back 67

plout out specific time spent on all tasks involved in a mission and determine what task, when and for how long it takes

Front 68

Primary Task Measures

Back 68

set specific criterion for performance task then manipulate facet to increase difficulty until performance drops below criterion
helps determine how much space capacity is

Front 69

Secondary Task Measures

Back 69

introduce a second, concurrent task

Front 70

Physiological Measures

Back 70

measure workload via changes to normal human biological activtiy

Front 71

Subjective Measure

Back 71

have operator express amount of workload experienced

Front 72

Sensory Memory

Back 72

stimuli held for a very short period of time as a trace
no attentional resources required

Front 73

Working Memory

Back 73

temporary information stored

Front 74

3 Main Ways Working Memory Is Used

Back 74

1. Retain new information until we use it
2. As a workbench areas that can be used to evaluate compare, calculate information
3. Hold new information so that it can transferred to long-term memory

Front 75

Visuospatial Sketchpad

Back 75

virtual environment for physical simulation, calculation, visualization and optical memory recall

Front 76

Phonlogical Loop

Back 76

represents verbal information in acoustical form

Front 77

Unattended information deteriorates in _______

Back 77

10-15 seconds

Front 78

Chunking can _____ (3)

Back 78

1. reduce the number of items in working memory
2. make meaningful associations in long-term memory
3. make it easier to rehearse material

Front 79

Types of Forgetting (2)

Back 79

1. Similarity
2. Interference

Front 80

Similarity

Back 80

competing stimuli of the same modality are more likely to interfere with stimuli in memory

Front 81

Types of Interference (2)

Back 81

1. Retroactive
2. Proactive

Front 82

Retroactive Interference

Back 82

due to any activity that occurs between the time info is encoded and when it is recalled

Front 83

Proactive Interference

Back 83

consequence of activity that precedes coding of item to be remembered

Front 84

What Affects Working Memory (4)

Back 84

1. Requires Attention
2. Unattended information deteriorates very quickly
3. Attentional Resources are limited
4. Time and attention factors combine to limit capacity

Front 85

Design Implications of Working Memory (6)

Back 85

1. Minimize Memory Load
2. Provide visual echoes (redundancy)
3. Exploit Chunking
4. Minimize Confusability
5. Exploit Different Codes
6. Text and Instructions

Front 86

Long Term Memory

Back 86

mechanism for storing information so that it can be retrieved for later use

Front 87

The process of storing information in Long Term Memory

Back 87

Learning

Front 88

Semantic Memory (2)

Back 88

general knowledge
1. Declarative
2. Procedural

Front 89

Declarative Semantic Memory

Back 89

verbalized knowledge
ex. steps in process

Front 90

Procedural Semantic Memory

Back 90

knowing how do something, but difficult to verbalize

Front 91

Event Memory (2)

Back 91

specific events
1. Episodic
2. Prospective

Front 92

Episodic Event Memory

Back 92

episodes that occurred in the past

Front 93

Prospective Event Memory

Back 93

remembering something to do with the future

Front 94

Factors that affect ease of retrieval from long term memory (2)

Back 94

1. Frequency of use
2. Receny

Front 95

Associations

Back 95

retrieving items from LTM that we link with new items or other existing items

Front 96

Depth of Processing (Craik & Lockhart)

Back 96

deeper processing while encoding new information improves later memory of that information

Front 97

Types of Rehearsal (2)

Back 97

1. Rote rehearsal - simple recycling of phonetic information in order to maintain in working memory

2. Elaborative Rehearsal - paying attention to the meaning of the information; relating information with on another

Front 98

Memory Retrieval Affect By: (2)

Back 98

1. Retrieval Context
2. Number of Retrieval Cues

Front 99

Transfer-Appropriate Processing Effect

Back 99

retrieval tends to be better when cues available are the same that they were during encoding

Front 100

Recall vs. Recongition

Back 100

Recall - no explicit cues are provided
Recognition - cues can be used to activate specific traces for processing

Front 101

Long Term Memory Design Implications (4)

Back 101

1. Encourage regular use of information
2. Standardize - equipment, controls, etc. use what people already know
3. Use memory aids
4. Design information carefully