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54 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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According to Piaget how does Cognitive Dev. occur in the Pre-operational stage (2-7 years)?
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Developmental stage marked by symbolic representation through
-Sensorimotor activity -Language Make-believe or imaginary play -Becomes more developed and abstract -Before two, narrowly prescribed to real-life representations -During this stage, increased flexibility of use of objects, shift of focus to others, sociodramatic play, awareness of imaginative nature of play |
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According to Piaget in the Pre-operational stage (2-7 years) what is egocentrism?
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-Difficulty with perspective taking results in accommodation failures
-Mountains task -Piaget attributes this as the cause for animistic thinking |
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According to Piaget in the Pre-operational stage (2-7 years) what is Inability to conserve?
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-Difficulty recognizing constancy of physical characteristics: number, mass, liquid, weight
-Transformation tasks -6-7 years for number, mass, and liquid, 8-10 years for weight |
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According to Piaget in the Pre-operational stage (2-7 years) what is Limited ability for categorization?
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-Flowers example
-Difficulty with reversibility, utilization of hierarchical organization |
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What are some Criticism of Piaget’s Preoperational Stage?
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Simplification of tasks and use of familiar objects reveals
Egocentrism is not as complete as Piaget theorized Inference of intention observed around 18 months Conservation understanding is evident earlier Overestimated animistic and magical thinking Most often used when presented with contradictory facts, unfamiliar tasks or objects, or excess of information Culturally produced effects Children in this stage lack language capacity for some of these tasks Analogous thinking present at three years Categorization systems are not very complex, but they exist Can use non-observable characteristics for categorization By three years, use of general categories and subcategories |
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What are Vygotsky's thoughts on Cognitive Dev?
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Private versus egocentric speech
Vygotsky challenged Piagetian belief about speech for self -Rather than example of lack of perspective taking that disappears, Vygotsky suggested: -This speech is for self-guidance and is foundational for higher order cognition (memorization & recall, planning, problem solving, self-reflection) -Research supports this position and children are more likely to use private speech when tasks are challenging, after mistakes, or when confused -Those using more private speech do better on challenging tasks -Becomes internal speech over time with increased expertise |
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How does Vygotsky's cognitive Dev. occur over time?
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-Sociocultural context of key importance
Private speech developed through interaction with more knowledgeable others Scaffolding helps teach new skills and develop problem solving strategies Imaginative play provides opportunity for enactment of social norms and morays, challenging tasks, and use of new strategies and skills in social environment -Some cultures do not focus on verbal transmission of information Guided participation (Rogoff, 1998) -Vygotsky’s theory lacks clear explanation for mechanism of development from basic to higher order cognition |
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How does the ability to process information change over time?
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-Ability for sustained attention improves allowing for increased use of planning
-Limited recall abilities for most, primarily due to lack of strategies such as rehearsal, organization Digit span recall only 2 at 2 ½ years and 5 at 7 years -Information Processing Theory suggests this is as much about learning as limited capacity of working memory Better recall ability predicts improved language development -Use of scripts for familiar events Start off as basic, sometimes in the wrong order, but become more complex over time -Isolated events recall is better when using elaborative style versus repetitive style Providing pieces of information and prompting thought about particular parts of experience |
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When does metacognition occur?
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-Ability for metacognition (thinking about thinking) is limited before 4 years
-Linguistic and cultural influences -Lack of outward signs of thinking or mental experience may lead to passive ideas about mental life |
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What are some facts about literacy?
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Emergent literacy refers to use of written language prior to understanding of symbolic nature of written word
-Memorization and recitation of stories or short, familiar words -Difficulty understanding construction of words at first -Letter-sound knowledge Phonological awareness refers to ability to manipulate sound structure -Combined with letter-sound knowledge, allows for isolate and locate words Informal language and literacy exposure is important for formal learning that takes place in schools -Different experiences of lower- and higher-SES children |
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How does the ability to do math dev. over time?
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Ordinality: relationships of quantities
-More and less than, 14 to 16 months Most can count to objects to 5 well by 3 years Most can count to 10 well by 3 ½ to 4 years Cardinality: relationships of order -Final number in a series represents quantity Around 4 years basic arithmetic -Practice leads to automatic recall Improved ability and more rapid development when counting and computational opportunities are provided |
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What are some interventions of cognitive dev?
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-Early intervention programs like Project Head Start have been shown to be highly efficacious for at-risk preschoolers
-Provides educational, nutritional, and health services -Encourages parental involvement -Effects: kids catch up to better advantaged peers and IQ and achievements benefits persist into elementary school -Follow-up has shown more tangible positive results like improved graduate rates, less interaction with criminal justice system, continued education, higher earnings |
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What is some info about educational programming?
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Educational programming viewing associated with improved early literacy and math skills
-Sesame Street 40% of 3 month olds are regular viewers 90% of two year olds -US average 2-6 year olds watch 90-120 minutes daily 1/3 of preschoolers have TV in their room, 2/3 of elementary school kids -40 to 90 minutes more daily viewing than those without Heavy viewing can distract from important social, physical, and educational activity |
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What are some facts about dyslexia?
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-DSM V defines it as a “pattern of learning difficulties characterized by problems with accurate or fluent word recognition, poor decoding, and poor spelling abilities.”
-Is a processing disorder, not a visual disorder -No evidence to support people with dyslexia see words or letters differently -Phonemic awareness: ability to hear and manipulate the sounds in spoken words and the understanding that spoken word & syllables are made up of sequences of speech (Yopp, 1992)--Difficulty with fine distinctions with sounds of language -May reverse letters for longer period than other children, but not because of a visual problem rather they are slowed in developing literacy |
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What are some signs one might have dyslexia?
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Possible signs of Specific Learning Disorder with impairment in reading (dyslexia):
-Late recognizing letters -Trouble rhyming -Trouble listing words starting with the same letter -Slow to learn letter sounds and letter combinations -Difficulty learning to recognize words |
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What happens in Emotional & Social Development from years 2 to 6?
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Development of sense of self
Development of social relationships Development of moral understanding Impact of different parenting styles |
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Describe Freud’s Phallic stage (3-6 years)?
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-Pleasure from genital stimulation
-Oedipal and Electra complexes -Adopt gender roles of same sex parent to avoid punishment -Formation of superego |
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What happens in Erikson's Initiative V. Guilt stage in terms of psychosocial dev?
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-Children explore personal potential through play
-Those supported by parents develop sense of ambition and responsibility -Those whose parents demand unwarranted self-control have excessive guilt Play also provides important avenue to learn about and explore culture -Enact visible/desirable occupations or roles -Often reflective of cultural values -Note similarities to Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory |
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How does the Self develop over time?
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-Self-concept: collection of abilities, values, and -beliefs that individuals use to define who they are
-Children early in this stage define themselves in terms of observable qualities, age, or name May describe emotions or attitudes, but not personality traits -Stronger sense of self associated with being more possessive, “MINE” Also improved ability to cooperate to solve problems or play with peers and improved autobiographical memory -Cultural differences in relation of self to community |
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How does Gender dev. over time?
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Sex: state of being male or female
-Biologically determined Gender: behavioral, cultural, and psychological traits associated with one sex or another -Culturally defined Gender identity: self-image derived from identification with masculine or feminine characteristics -Individually defined -Children are exposed to gender typing early and often -By three or four, 50% or more endorse rigid views regarding violation gender stereotypes in terms of “acceptable” play and appearance |
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How is Sex determined?
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Biologically determined
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How is gender determined?
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Culturally defined
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How is gender identity defined?
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Individually defined
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What is biological sex?
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Male, female, or intersex
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What is gender identity?
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Whether someone identifies as a man, woman, bigendered or gender queer
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What is gender expression?
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Masculine, feminine, androgynous, or cisgendered
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How has gender dev. over time?
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-Evolutionary theorists suggest differences in dominance/aggression and intimacy/responsiveness is due to early sex differences for meeting survival needs: mate seeking versus childrearing
-Biologists report prenatal exposure to male sex hormones (androgens) increases masculine activity & less caregiving in both males and females -Girls exposed to androgens in utero demonstrate more masculine behavior—preference for masculine toys, increased activity, and opposite sex playmates -Cognitive-developmental theorists suggest children develop understanding of gender constancy, which they believe contributes to gender typing--Support for this position is weak |
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How is gender dev. affected by social factors?
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-Greatly influenced by social interactions
-Parents have differing expectations from birth, model and reward culturally-appropriate activity through language and toys provided -Teachers treat students differently based on sex through expectation and reinforcement of culturally-appropriate behavior -Peers reinforce gender stereotypes as early as three, boys tend to be more critical of cross-gender play by peers -These interactions lead to in-group favoritism and preference for same-sex peer groups and reduced quality of interaction in cross-sex groups |
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What is Gender Schema Theory?
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-Information-processing approach incorporating both social learning and cognitive developmental approaches
-Children acquire gender norms regarding behavior, appearance, and preferences from others -Children develop cognitive schemas organized around gender norms as a means of categorizing and organizing information and experience |
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How does Emotion dev. over time?
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By the age of 4 or 5, language developments allow increased understanding and communication of emotion
-Understanding of effects of emotion on behavior -Responsiveness to emotions of others -Beginning to see link between cognition and emotion Secure attachment and caregiver responsiveness to child’s emotional experience improves ability to recognize in others, use of emotion in play, -More emotionally competent children are liked more by their peers and report better relationships |
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How does emotion regulation dev. over time?
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-Language development also aids in the regulation of emotion
-By three years, most demonstrate effortful control to manage emotions by resisting impulses, directing attention away from distressing stimuli, shifting goals, or engaging in self-soothing speech Those better at distracting self when frustrated at 3 are more adaptive after entering school -Ability to regulate also affected by temperament and caregiver responsiveness Likelihood of future regulation problems is reduced when parents acknowledge and are attentive to the emotional experience of children and encourage use of management strategies Those who are more temperamentally rigid may experience emotion more intensely and have greater difficulty regulating or being soothed Combined with unresponsive parents these children more often experience anxiety, frustration with others, aggression, and poorer relationships with others |
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As the sense of self develops how is emotional dev. effected?
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As language and sense of self emerge together, self-conscious emotion (how they feel about themselves) becomes more prominent
-Messages from important others remains very important -Feedback that focuses on increasing desirable behavior leads to levels of shame or pride that increase persistence in difficult tasks -Whereas feedback that primarily places value on the behavior and directly (or indirectly) on the child tends to lead to more intense feelings of shame or pride depending on the labels applied |
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What is the definition of empathy?
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The ability to understand another's emotional state, and to feel with that person, or respond emotionally in a similar way.
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What is the definition of sympathy?
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Feelings of concern or sorrow for another's plight.
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What is the hippocampus?
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An inner brain structure that plays a vital role in memory and in images of space that help us find our way.
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What is the corpus callosum?
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A large bundle of fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres.
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What is the Growth Hormone GH?
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it is necessary for development of all body tissues except the central nervous system and the genitals.
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What is the pituitary gland?
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A gland located at the base of the brain, plays a critical role by releasing two hormones that induce growth.
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What is the Thyroid Stimulating Hormone? (TSH)
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Prompts the Thyroid gland in the neck to release thyroxine which is necessary for brain development and for GH to have its full impact on body size.
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What is Parten’s (1932) social development sequence?
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-Nonsocial activity
Solitary play or observing others’ play -Parallel play In the vicinity of others, often engaging in similar tasks or play -Associative play Separate activities, but share toys and note one another’s play -Cooperative play Shared goals -Cultural differences Collectivistic versus individualistic societies |
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How do children develop social relationships?
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-Children during this period understand friendship in terms of sharing objects or activities
Do not understand the enduring nature of bonds and so they may not be “friends” on days when disputes occur -More emotional expression, talking, and attention paid to “friends” than nonfriends even amongst preschoolers -Ease of forming friendships associated with ability to perform both cooperative and self-directed tasks -Improved social abilities demonstrated to be associated with improved achievement |
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How do parent's effect children's social relationships?
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-Parents serve as models for social interaction skills
-Parents influence relationships directly by providing opportunity, selecting playmates, demonstrating skills for initiating contact or negotiating conflict -Parents indirectly influence childhood relationships through their own relationships with their children, i.e., attachment and communication styles |
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How do morals dev. according to Freud?
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Freudian model
-Guilt and fear of punishment are key -Development of superego to avoid above, relatively complete by childhood -Poses questions about what is done in the absence of fear and guilt -Freud would argue development of a strong superego would lead individuals to act morally in these instances, but if the motivation is fear of punishment or guilt, does this constitute moral behavior? What happens if loss of love from caregivers or fear of punishment becomes the primary motivators? Self-blame, denial of emotions, poor self-image in the former -Reduced expressions of guilt and more frequent violations of norms in the latter -Guilt is a primary motivator, but parents have to help children deal with it in a constructive manner |
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What is the Moral Development: Inductive Approach?
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Induction involves utilizing the reactions of others to help children recognize emotion and the impact of their behavior on others
Encourages empathy and sympathetic responding The use of induction tends to lead kids to less likely to violate norms and more likely to acknowledge and address consequences of mistakes |
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How do different theorists feel about moral dev?
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-Social Learning theorists argue operant conditioning is insufficient for moral development
-Argue children learn culturally appropriate moral behavior through observation and imitation (modeling), which is, in turn, reinforced -Research demonstrates consistent exposure to prosocial models leads to internalization and enacting of prosocial behaviors even without presence of the model |
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How do morals effect punishment?
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Harsh forms of aggression tends to:
-Result in short-term compliance -Increased prevalence of mental health, social, and relational issues -Poorer academic performance Model becomes aggression rather than desired behavior Limits ability to focus on impact on others Intergenerational patterns due to increased acceptance Potential for patterns of escalation |
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How does cognition effect moral dev?
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-Children take active role in thinking about moral issues
-Preschoolers can distinguish between moral imperatives, social conventions, and issues of personal choice -Reasoning tends to be rigid and they have difficulty taking environmental factors and tend to focus on outcomes over intentions -Disputes with peers and siblings can be valuable for learning and practicing conflict management -Parenting supporting moral development is not critical or hostile and focuses on adapting communication to understanding level of child and providing encouragement of prosocial behavior |
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What are some facts about media exposure and aggression?
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-Numerous studies linking violent media exposure to short-term increases in verbal, physical, relational aggression
-Longitudinal study (1977-1992) on exposure to violent TV found (Huesmann et al., 2003): Predicted aggressive behavior for both males and females Similar patterns of verbal, general, and spousal aggression for both Even when controlling for SES, childhood aggression, intelligence, and parenting factors -Meta-analytic studies of video game exposure and aggression have revealed (Anderson & Bushman, 2001; Anderson, 2003): Positive correlations with aggressive behavior, thoughts, affect, and physiological arousal Negative correlations with prosocial behavior Lack of longitudinal studies Behavior is more complicated that formula of simple exposure -Parental monitoring Substantial minorities of preschoolers (~25%) and school-aged children (40%) do not limit media exposure -Cultural norms and laws regarding violence US tends to regulate media violence and firearms ownership much less vigorously than other countries |
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What is the authoritarian parent?
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-High on control, Low on support
-Excessive limits for age, lack of autonomy for child -Enforce limits & maintains control through physical and psychological threats or coercion -Pattern of escalation in conflict -Children from these families may be anxious and withdrawn or defiant and aggressive, resentful of parents |
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What is the Permissive Parent?
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-Low on control, High on support
-Though warm and supportive, these parents exert little control -Don’t set limits or inconsistent -Allow children to make own decisions -Children from these families often demonstrate difficulty in school due to impulsivity and acting out, are demanding, dependent on others |
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What is the uninvolved/Neglectful Parent?
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-Low on control, Low on support
-Little engagement with children -Don’t set limits and don’t monitor -Uninvolved parents are frequently suffering from mental health issues themselves -May constitute neglect when severe -Children from these families demonstrate difficulty in school, forming relationships, and often exhibit poor emotional regulation |
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What is the Authoritative parent?
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-High on control, High on support
-Balance between control and autonomy is adaptive with age and individual -Warm, supportive, open to child’s perspective -Consistent enforcement, joint resolutions when appropriate -Children from these families tend to have fewer problems in school, demonstrate improved emotional regulation, social competence, and self-esteem -Protective effects from negative environmental factors, positive modeling |
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What are some cultural variations across parenting styles and culture?
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-Definitions of warmth may vary across cultures, may be expressed in different ways
-Chinese parents tend to be more directive, use praise less frequently Dweck: praise of process, not person or innate abilities improves performance and ability to overcome failure Inflated praise leads kids with low self-esteem to seek less challenging tasks -Hispanic, Asian, and Caribbean Island combining warmth and emphasis on parental authority tends to promote loyalty to family and personal competence -Increased emphasis on strictness and obedience in low SES, African American families tends to lead to improved social and cognitive outcomes for children -Limited physical punishment may reduce antisocial activity in these families, but increases it for EuroAmerican children Differences in the way white and black parents use physical punishment Positive forms of discipline still more effective |
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What are some examples of positive discipline?
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Reduce opportunity
-Create environments and situations where undesirable behavior is less likely Inductive teaching moments -Communicating impacts of behavior on others Reasoning -Providing explanation of rules or decisions Compromise and joint problem solving -Working together to find solutions; firm, kind response Encouragement -Praising effort and showing confidence in child’s abilities Reinforcing desirable behavior -Acknowledging adherence to rules, observing limits, or effort to do so Removal of privileges or desirable activities -Negative punishment Time out -Removal from immediate situation -Reintroduction when child signals willingness to abide by rules Improved effectiveness when discipline is: -Consistent -Accompanied by explanations -Provided in context of warm, supportive relationship |
