Human Cognition - Final Exam

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language

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Language is a conventional system of communicative sounds and sometimes (though not necessarily) written symbols. The primary function of language is to communicate. According to Noam chomsky, Humans posses a language acquisition device consisting of innate knowledge of grammatical structure.
- Organized way to combine words to communicate

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Communication (the purpose of speech production)

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Principles of communication:
-Maxim of quantity (the speaker should be truthful), -Maxim of quality (Telling the truth is expected),
-Maxim of relation ( the speaker should say things relevant to the situation), and
-Maxim of Manner (the speaker should make his/her contribution easy to understand).
-Both Quality and Relation in Gricean Maxims are “speaker should say things relevant to the situation”?
In my notes i have “QUALITY: telling the truth is expected; We lie more on the phone”

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Properties of Language:

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-Communicative
-Arbitrarily symbolic
-Regularly structured
-Structured at multiple levels
-Generative
-Dynamic
-Productive. (CARS & GDP)

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Arbitrarily Symbolic

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There is no relationship between what the word is and what the word means
- Few exceptions: animal sounds

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Regularly Structured

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There are right and wrong ways to talk
• e.g. “Did you went to the park?” (Words here are all valid but ‘went’ is not an appropriate conjunction of the verb “to go”)

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Structured at Multiple Levels

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Every language has a rule in every level. For example, some pairs of words are allowed, and others are not allowed.

Syntax level: ex) Pink table (English), Table pink (Spanish).
Sentence level: “I went to the park” vs. “Went to the park I”

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Generative/Productive

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this means that we can produce endless variations and combinations of sentences, like the toaster example she gave in class. “Isn’t it amazing that you can buy a broken toaster on ebay?” The point is that you can say things that you have never heard said before:

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Phone

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a unit of sound in any language (smallest unit of sound)

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Phoneme

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these are basic units of sound; words consists of one or more phonemes

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Morpheme

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basic units of meaning

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Root Words

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- A word or word element (that is, a morpheme) from which other words grow, usually through the addition of prefixes and suffixes.

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Affixes

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A word element--a prefix, suffix, or infix--that can be attached to a base or root to form a new word or a new form of a word. Affixes are bound morphemes.

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Content morphemes

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have meaning (ex. chair, table)

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Function morphemes

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do not have meaning (ex. to, from, the)

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lexicon

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a list of all the words that belong to a particular language

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vocabulary

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is a list of words that an individual knows or uses regularly. Vocabulary is different from lexicon because vocabulary is about what an individual or group of people know, whereas lexicon is about the language itself.

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Basic Components of Sentences:
*Identify its syntax

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grammar → noun phrase + verb phrase
ex) John runs

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Basic Components of Sentences:
Noun Phrase

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noun + modifiers
ex: boy + big

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Basic Components of Sentences:
Verb Phrase

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verb + modifiers ex: run + fast

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Lexical Decision

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-humans have mental dictionary called a lexicon.
-We organize words semantically
-words are organized by the meaning instead of alphabetical order like the actual dictionary
-In the lexical decision experiment, response time to judge word/nonword was shorter when two presented words were related.

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Lexical Decision Task

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Strings of letters are presented, and the task is to decide as rapidly as possible whether each string is a word or a nonword

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TRACE model

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a model of speech perception based on connectionist principles.
-A key assumption of the model is that bottom-up and top-down processes interact flexibly in spoken word recognition.
-It shows how activation among the three levels (word, phoneme, and feature) is influenced by bottom-up and top-down processing (supports the notion that top-down processes are important). Emphasis on the importance of top-down processes (e.g., context effects, can have an almost immediate effect on speech perception)
-There are facilitatory connections between levels, so that processing at one level can influence processing at another level.

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Coarticulation

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The way you pronounce the word depends on what sound is around it

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Speech Segmentation

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-Identifying boundaries between words, syllables, or phonemes.
-it’s a mental process, when we perceive individual words even though the speech signal is continuous. This was a part of the example given for lyrics, “Kiss the Sky” ends up being perceived as “kiss this guy”.

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McGurk Effect

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visual and auditory information are combined when the two sources of information are in conflict.

-e.g. Participants are shown a video of a person saying “BA”, then audio is changed to someone saying “GA” but the person in the video that was saying “BA” is the same. Therefore participants combine “BA” + “GA” and think they are hearing “DA”
-influenced by top down processes

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Semantics

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The field of linguistics concerned with the study of meaning in language.

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Child-Directed Speech

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-one of the criticisms of Chomsky’s belief because linguistic input to which children are exposed to is much richer than Chomsky believed.
-Children can understand easier too because mother’s and adults’ use child directed speech with children. ---This means they use very short and simple utterances based on a limited vocabulary with slow rate of speaking, use of restricted vocabulary, and extra stress on key words
(designed to make it easy for young children to understand what is being communicated)

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Syntactical Priming

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-The tendency for the sentences produced by speakers to have the same syntactic structure as sentences they have heard or read shortly beforehand.
-aka structural priming
-For example, if someone says a sentence that has a certain structure to it - like passive, rather than active - then the listener will likely respond with a passive sentence.

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Speech Errors

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-semantic substitution errors, where we incorrectly use a word. “tennis bat”, vs “tennis racket”. 99 percent of this is a noun substitute for a noun and verb substitute for another verb.
-Number agreement errors, singular verbs are mistakenly used with plural subjects or vice versa. “The family of mice” and or “the family of rats” , the verb should be singular in both cases. Caused by insufficient processing resources to avoid these errors.

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Lexical Access

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the process by which the basic sound-meaning connections of language are activated. Depends on the level of activation that node has experienced before you want to access the word.
-frequent words are accessed faster than rare words

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Word-Superiority Effect

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-the tendency to report more letters from briefly presented words than from letter strings.
-When two stimuli, either words or nonwords are presented, we are more accurate and quicker to respond on whether the two words are the same or different.

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Differences Among Languages

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There are vanishingly few universals of language in the direct sense that all languages exhibit them. Diversity is found at almost every level of linguistic organization.

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Linguistic Universals

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according to chomsky, the features (word order) that are common to virtually all languages; there is controversy concerning the existence of such features

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Pidgin

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a language that is new, primitive languages created when two or more groups of people having different native languages are in contact

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Garden-Path Sentences

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Something at the end of the sentence makes the sentence different/ambiguous meaning than what is initially thought. ex) the horse raced past the barn fell

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Pragmatics

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-using the social context and other information to work out the intended meaning of what is said. Involved in sentence comprehension.
- Deals with intended rather than literal meaning as expressed by speakers and understood by listeners.

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Gestures

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-used by speakers to enhance a listeners’ ability to understand the speakers message.
-speakers adjust their gestures according to listeners’ needs
-however speakers tend to underestimate the power of gesture to communicate.
-a study found that gestures were most useful at conveying spatial information. When communicating spatial information, listeners were most helped by getures.
-however even when on the phone we use gestures to communicate, so gestures may also be useful to the speaker in that gestures help them communicate what they are trying to say. Gestures are not only for the listeners.
-gesturing while we talk might also help us to retrieve the words we want to say.

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Slips of the Tongue

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Errors involving the uttering, or hearing, writing or reading of a word which entail an involuntary parody of the word, assuming the word is known. It’s ordinary, but can have pathological underlying factors. it’s unrelated to a speech disorder.

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Anticipation

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sounds or words are spoken ahead of their time mainly reflect inefficient planning. (cuff of coffee… whoops!, nope CUP of coffee)

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Perseveration

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Sounds or words that are spoken later than they should have been. (“beef needle”… yikes. wrong, beef nOOdle)

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Pinker’s Theory of Indirect Speech

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Indirect speech is inefficient, vulnerable to being misunderstood, and seemingly unnecessary

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Wernicke’s Area

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Language comprehension

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Broca’s Area

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Language production

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Word-Superiority Effect

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the finding that a target letter is detected faster when presented in words than in non-words

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Principles/Maxims of Communication

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The rules that we supposed to follow when we have conversation: quantity, quality, relation, and manner.

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Quantity

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the amount of information you provide should be what people want to hear.

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Quality

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you expect that in the conversation, the person is telling the truth.

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relation

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Things said are relevant

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Manner

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communicate in the way that convey information in the best possible way ex) with gestures

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Prosody

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tones to give cues.

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Language Acquisition

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Language acquisition would be considered the way we develop speech. Chomsky believed that language acquisition device with the idea of universal grammar.

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Whole-object bias

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When children do not understand the word, they think that the word refers to the whole object.
- Ex. Learned that if a bunny has a particular shape, then that is how all rabbits look like

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Mutual exclusivity

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Children like to apply only one name/label for the object

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Shape bias

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Children generalize label based on shape

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Theory of mind

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something in the kid knows (or figures out) that the other person is talking about something without seeing the actual thing.
(e.g.; the command “Close the window” is not usually said as one is closing the window)

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Wernicke’s Aphasia

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In the temporal lobe. Input/understanding impairment

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Broca’s Aphasia

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In the frontal lobe. Speaking/writing impairment

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Problem Solving Cycle

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“The Problem Solving Cycle” is a….it starts at the top with #1 Identify (the problem), then forms a circle with the following stages, #2 Explore, #3 Set Goals, #4 Alternatives, #5 Select, #6 Implement, and #7 Evaluate

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4 Stages of Language Production
Semantic

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meaning-based but no language yet (no sound)

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Syntactic

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deciding the grammatical structure of the sentence (the outline, before picking the exact words)

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Morphological

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the morphemes, the basic units of meaning, are worked out (now using words.

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Phonological

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the basic sounds, or phonemes, are worked out in the sentence (pronouncing it correctly)
*These processes are not sequential; rather, they interact at all levels.

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Speech Errors

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-average person makes an error every 500 sentences.
-produced by spreading activation
-because the processes involved in speech production occur in parallel.
Planning what to say activates several sounds and words, so errors may occur when the incorrect word is activated more strongly than the correct word.
-this type of incorrect activation usually extends to words that are related to the words you actually meant to say.

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Substitutions

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-semantic substitution is when a correct word is replaced by a word of similar meaning. As in “where is my tennis bat?”

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Anticipatory/Persevatory

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-Most speech errors belong to these two categories.
-anticipatory errors are sounds or words that are spoken ahead of time.

-perseveratory errors are when sounds or words are spoken later than they should be.
-expert speakers should have more anticipatory errors.

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Agreement Errors

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-number agreement errors are where singular verbs are mistakenly used with plural subjects or vice versa.

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Spoonerisms

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A transposition of sounds (often the initial consonants) in two or more words, such as "shoving leopard" in place of "loving shepherd").

example: “cop porn” and “popcorn”.
-spoonerisms are examples of lexical bias

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Tip-of-the-Tongue (TOT)

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- The frustration experienced when a person has a specific concept in mind but can’t find
the right word to express it.
-experienced more often with relatively rare words
-occurs when semantic processing is successful but phonological processing isn’t
-bilinguals experience TOT more often than monolinguals. This may be because bilinguals use many words less frequently than monolinguals do, so the connections between meanings and phonological forms (sounds) may be weaker.

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Well-Structured Problems

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These yield an answer, It’s a problem that can be solved at some point.

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Ill-Structured Problems

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do not yield any specific answer. mirror real world problems were data are conflicting or inclusive.

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Well-Defined Problems

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where all the aspects of the problem are specified, including the initial situation, the range of possible methods or strategies, and the goal.
-The goal is well specified because it’s clear when the goal has been reached.

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Knowledge-Rich Problems

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can only be solved by those who have the relevant prior knowledge.

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Knowledge-Lean Problems

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don’t require much knowledge because most of the information you need is given in the initial problem statement.

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Judging Probability

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-The Monty Hall problem is where, after the TV host picks one door, you should switch your pick to the remaining door. Doing this produces a 2/3 chance of winning.

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Experience and Problem Solving

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-past experience isn’t always useful in problem solving. It can hinder your ability to apply new solutions to problems because you are set in a certain way of thinking (related to mental set and functional fixedness)
-this type of hindrance can happen regardless of whether you have a little or a lot of past experience with something.

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Insight

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-is the experience of suddenly realizing how to solve a problem.
-the “aha” experience depends on sudden understanding, which transforms the problem.
-occurs more often in the right hemisphere.
-while insight seems to just pop into the mind, there have actually been underlying, unconscious processes involved at trying to fix the problem while you were unaware that that is what you were doing.
-involves representational change theory
-what factors facilitate insight?

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Functional Fixedness

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-is when we fail to solve problems because we assume from past experience that any given object has only a limited number of uses.
-Duncker’s experiment with the match box and candle.
-participants fixated on the function of the matchbox as a container instead of as a platform.
-underlining the items to be used resulted in a higher participant success rate because it led them to directly attend to the importance of the underlined words.

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Mental Set

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-is a readiness to think or act in a given way, often because this has been shown to be successful in the past.

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Anchoring

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-A cognitive bias where we give more weight to the first piece of information we receive when making decisions. In decision making, we make these initial pieces of information our “anchors” in making subsequent decisions. Later information is interpreted around the anchor, rather than replacing the anchor.
• e.g. In sales: our decision/judgment in buying an expensive article of clothing is anchored on the retail price which “was” $500 and now it is 50% off. So we see the price relative to the “original” price.

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Stereotypes

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help keep us stuck in an old fixed view where we are blind to see other solutions (see negative transfer + schemas)

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Negative Transfer

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past experience will hinder problem-solving

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Positive Transfer

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past experience will help problem-solving

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Transfer of Analogies

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-refers to analogical problem solving
-idea that solving one type of analogy makes you better able to solve another one. What you learned from solving one problem can be applied to another problem.

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Incubation

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-is when participants put aside a problem for a while to observe the effects on the subsequent likelihood of solving it.
-enhances problem solving
-enhanced by sleep
-involves a special type of forgetting
-incubation worked more strongly for problems that had multiple solutions than for solving problems that had only one solution (some study)

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Means/ends analysis

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• a heuristic for solving problems based on creating a subgoal designed to reduce the difference between the current state of a problem and the end or goal state.
o note the difference between the current state of the problem and the goal
o form a subgoal to reduce the difference between the current goal states
o selecta mental operator that permits attainment of the subgoal

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Hill Climbing

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• a simple heuristic used by problem solvers in making moves that will apparently ut them closer to the goal or problem solution.
o changing the present state within the problem into one closer to the goal. it is a simpler strategy than means to ends analysis. used when the problem solver has no clear understanding of the structure of a problem.
o more focused on short term goals.

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Progress monitoring

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• this is a heuristic used in problem solving in which insufficiently rapid progress towards solution leads to the adoption of different strategy.
o involves assessing their rate of progress towards the goal. if progress is too slow to solve the problem within the maximum number of moves allowed, a different strategy is adopted.

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Planning

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• Problem solvers often engage in only a modest amount planning, because it is cognitively demanding, they can plan effectively if required to do so. there is greater forward planning by experts than by non experts.
• level of expertise is a predictor of the amount of forward planning used when solving problems.

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Using Analogies

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• a type of problem solving based on detaching analogies or similarities between the current problem and problems solved in the past.
o making use of analogies or similarities between the current problem or problems solved in the past.
• in order for people to make successful use of a previous problem to solve a current one, they must detect similarities between the two problems.
• three main types of similarity between problems
• superficial similarity: solution irrelevant details are common to the two problems.
• structural similarity: causal relations among some of the main components are shared by the two problems.
• Procedural similarity: procedures or actions for turning the solution principle into concrete operations are common to the two problems.

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Cross cultural differences

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• Cultures can be divided into high context (behavior strongly influenced by the immediate context) and low context (behavior influenced by perceptions of personal control). Individuals in low context cultures plan more than those in high context cultures, whereas those in high context cultures gather more information about the problem.
o most research on problem solving has been carried in low context cultures. Given the differences in strategies used by the problem solvers in low context and high context cultures, it is important for future research to adopt a more cross cultural approach.

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Science - strong vs. weak methods

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-uses the scientific method to answer questions. Forming a hypotheses, performing an experiment.

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Hypothesis Testing

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-is a type of problem solving. Based on forming a hypothesis which is then tested.

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Confirmation Bias

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-our tendency to look for and accept evidence that confirms what we already believe
-level of expertise affects this, in that those with more expertise were more willing to discard their own ideas in the search for answers.

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Explain how language and communication are different. Give an example of communication that does not involve language.

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Speakers can communicate meaning in nonverbal ways by body movements as well as hand gestures.(Pg.264) Language and communication differ in that language is that Language is conventional system of communicative sounds and written symbols , communication is the process of sharing information verbally, through gestures, or body language. Examples of non-verbal communication, and primal non-language sounds that still communicate (e.g.; person screams as they fall or are surprised, sounds we make while crying, laughing) Actors would be especially good at this. Body movements can also communicate meaning (P.264)

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Is language innate? Support your answer?

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NO. Language is NOT innate. Chomsky believed it was. Chomsky argued that children acquired language fast because of the Language Acquisition device or Universal Grammar. He didnt take into account how mothers ( and all adults by that manner) use child directed speech, thus influencing language… ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS… Besides that ,there is little evidence of a universal grammar. Support : humans have a strong innate motivation to acquire language (including grammatical rules) and to communicate with others. Chomsky claimed that humans possess a language acquisition device consisting of innate knowledge of grammatical structure. Chomsky later replaced that idea with linguistic universals which are features common to nearly every language. Mothers and other adults use child directed speech when speaking to young children. Child directed speech involves short simple sentences and limited vocabulary. The Language bioprogram hypothesis, states that children will create grammar even if

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pt 2

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if they are not exposed to proper language during their early years. The study of pidgin languages, they are new primitive languages created when two or more groups of people that have different native languages, are in contact. Children who are offspring of those sugar plantation workers, developed Hawaiian Creole, which is a proper language that is fully grammatical. Attempts to teach Deaf Nicaraguan children Spanish at special schools resulted developed a new system of gestures instead, that expanded into a basic sign language passed on to successive groups of children who joined the school.

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What are the differences between phone, phonemes and morphemes

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Phone is any unit of sound in any language.
Phonemes are basic units of sound to a particular language.
Morphemes are basic units of meaning.

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Are there any constraints on various combinations of phonemes?

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Yes...

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Can we have a word with all consonants? All vowels?

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Not in English...but why?

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Why don’t speakers of some languages, such as Chinese, differentiate between the English phonemes of /l/ and /r/?

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Because in the chinese language l and r are the same phonemes, whereas in English, there are different phonemes

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What types of information are held in one’s mental lexicon?

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The internal lexicon contains information about the sounds, spellings, and meanings of words stored in long term memory. It functions as a dictionary.

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You enjoy watching game shows and one of your favorites is Jeopardy. Jeopardy is a quiz show in which contestants answer questions from a set of identified categories. When you watch the show, you notice that if you did not see the question category. Before the question was asked you are never able to come up with the correct answer before the question timer runs out. Using what you have learned from this class, why might this be the case?

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Might involve priming and spreading activation...if you know what the category is, that “area” in your semantic memory gets primed...without knowledge of the category, the person starts this process at a disadvantage.
This is due to Schemas ( well integrated packets of knowledge about the world, events, people, and actions). Schemas stored in long term memory include scripts that deal with knowledge about events and consequences of events. Schemas are important because they contain information needed to understand what we hear and read. Schemas also allow us to form expectations.

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What evidence supports the existence of linguistic universals?

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Linguistic universals are features common to nearly every language. Such as the distinction between nouns, verbs, and word order. In english the typical word order is subject-verb-object (e.g, the man kicked the ball).
Within Greenberg’s study of numerous languages, 98% of those languages had the subject preceding the object. The subject is the word that a sentence is about, whereas the object is the person or thing acted upon the verb. The central importance of the subject within the sentence means it is entirely appropriate for it to precede the object.

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What are the stages of production? What do errors in production indicate?

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Subject,Verb,Article,Object.
1. Semantic level (initial planning of the message to be communicated, abstract
representation of idea(s))
2. Syntactic level (Outline, including grammar; the grammatical structure of the words in
the planned utterances is decided)
3. Morphological (Vocabulary in position: the basic unit of meaning are worked out)
4. Phonological (Information about pronunciation; the basic unit of sound within the
sentence are added)

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Speech error

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word-exchange errors involve two words changing places
- Comes from same clause but are often some way apart in the sentence

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. Why are emoticons useful in writing (texting)? What aspect of language do they represent?

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They more effectively communicate the feeling behind the words, reducing the likelihood of misunderstandings possible through written words only...they represent non-verbal communication, both physical (smiling, winking) and tonal (sarcastic, jokingly)
Expressive writing: writing in a heartfelt way on a topic of deep personal significance to the writer has beneficial effects on emotional states of health. Writing on personally relevant topics communicates to others much about what you are like as a person. It represents the communication aspect of language

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Compare and contrast Broca’s and Wernicke’s aphasias (What are the defining features of each?)

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Brocas aphasia is a production aphasia – It is hard for them to speak- someone with it struggles to talk . Theyre talking and they have long space between words. You can get a sense of what they are trying to tell you . They know that they have a problem. Typically a stroke patient – very hard for them to speak

Wernicke’s aphasia is an input production aphasia – not quite as common – has much lower recovery rate … You see them and they almost don’t know they have a problem. They’ll talk in a way that it sounds that they are talking real language . There is no awareness of a problem , they are less likely to work hard for them to get better.

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Take a few slips of the tongue (or generate your own) and provided examples of how the errors occur at different levels of linguistic processing (i.e., acoustical level). What do slips of the tongue tell us about how we process linguistic information? What do TOTs tell us about linguistic universals?

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“Deep Cot” may activate the words keep and dot and this extra activation can produce and error. “Deed Cop” does not activate Keed or Dop and so speakers are unlikely to produce these nonwords.

Bilinguals fluent in American sign language and English had more tip of the tongue states than monolinguals when searching for English words. This could not be due to phonological interference because there is no phonological overlap between English and American Sign Language. As a result of the use of many words, connections between meaning and phonological form are less well established. Linguistic Universals are features common to nearly every language.

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What does a speech error such as saying “Don’t you fake your shinger at me” tell us about language production

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Speakers produce the sounds most highly activated at any given moment, these sounds are typically the correct ones. Occasionally they are not because phonemes and words may all be activated at the same time . Activation at the word level helps to explain the lexical bias effect. We also monitor our own internal speech before speaking out loud to eliminate any non-words.

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What is functional fixedness?

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The inflexible focus on the unusual function or functions of an object in problem solving. This is observed when we fail to solve problems because we assume from past experience that any given object has only a limited number of uses. (Candle, Match Box with matches, Tacks … task was to attach the candle to the wall by a table so it did not drip onto the table below.) -- participants “fixated” on the box’s function as a container ( hence functional FIXedness)

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How might incubation help in insightful problem-solving?

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Incubation involves a special type of forgetting. What tends to be forgotten over time is control information relating to the solvers to adopt a new approach after the incubation period.
It helps insight because...its been shown that insight solutions occur more often when people aren’t “tied down” into one perspective, or looking at a problem from just one angle...when incubation occurs, the distracting or misleading ideas are forgotten, allowing for a more open minded approach to the problem when readdressed, increasing the chance of one putting it all together in one “aha” moment (insight)

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Define well-structured and ill-structured problems.

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Well defined problems are problems in which the initial state, the goal, and the methods available for solving them are clearly laid out.
Ill-defined problems are problems in which the definition of the problem statement is imprecisely specified; the initial state, goal state, and methods to be used to solve the problem may be unclear.

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. Give an example of a well-structured problem and an example of an ill-structured problem. How do these types of problems differ? What difficulties is one likely to encounter when solving each type of problem?

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Well-structured: A maze is a well defined problem in which reaching the center is the goal.
- Easy to identify errors and deficiencies in the strategies adopted by human problem solvers
Ill-structured:Suppose you set yourself the goal of becoming happier. There are potentially endless strategies you could adopt, and it is hard to know which one would be most effective.
- I’ll-structured are underspecified, most everyday problems are ill-defined

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What are the advantages of becoming an expert? What are the disadvantages? Explain.

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Experts are very efficient at solving numerous problems in their area of expertise. However, most research on problem solving involves “knowledge lean” problems requiring no special training or knowledge for their solution.
In contrast, studies on expertise have typically used “knowledge rich” problems requiring much knowledge beyond that presented in the problem itself.

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Take a problem that you had a difficult time solving and then explain how the problem solving cycle could have been applied or which parts where used.

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1. Identify: Name the problem so that you can find an appropriate solution
2. Explore: Think about it from different angles. It can help you find an effective solution
ex. how is this problem affecting me?
3. Set goals: What is it that you want to achieve?
ex. increase your time management skills?
4. Alternatives: Look for different solutions
5. Select: From all the possible solutions, predict the outcomes for them
6. Implement: Put it into action
7. Evaluate: Evaluate effectiveness of your solution
ex. how effective was that solution? what consequence did it have on my situation.

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Compare and contrast negative and positive transfer. Develop ways in which one could minimize negative transfer and increase positive transfer.

Back 116

Negative Transfer - What is learned in one context hinders or delays learning in a different setting
Positive Transfer -What is learned in one context enhances learning in a different setting

Front 117

Representational change theory

Back 117

When trying to solve a problem, we often encounter a block or impasse where we have represented the problem wrongly-

Front 118

Three Methods of Representational Change Theory

Back 118

1. Constraint relaxation: Inhibiting on what is regarded permissible are removed.
2. Re-encoding: some aspect of the problem representation is reinterpreted
3. Elaboration: New problem information is added to the representation

Front 119

How can anchoring affect our answer to a problem?

Back 119

The anchoring effect is a cognitive bias that influences you to rely too heavily on the first piece of information you receive. (Once you receive the first piece of information, it gets harder for you to “think outside of the box”)