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114 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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ENCODING |
- putting things into your memory - processes used to store information in memory - mood will affect what you remember at the time of coding and decoding - top down process?? |
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STORAGE |
- Process used to maintain information in the memory - if you can't remember something how can you know if you can't find it or it was never stored? (retrieval ) |
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RETREIVAL |
- process used to get information back out of memory |
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MEASURING MEMORY (Recognition Tasks) |
- easiest ones |
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MEASURING MEMORY (Serial Recall ) |
- requires that you remember the items AND the order of the items (there is an extra demand here) - recall the names of all previous presidents in the order they were elected - need to recall order as well as item names |
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MEASURING MEMORY (Free Recall) |
- remember everything you can from this list - recall all the words you can from the list you say previously |
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MEASURING MEMORY (Cued Recall) |
- recall everything you can that is associated with the Civil War - participants given a cue to facilitate recall |
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SENSORY MEMORY |
- when it's hitting your receptors - ICONIC (has to do with pics) stays there - AUDITORY (has to do with sounds) only stays for a few seconds - When it's being exposed on your sensory memory (visual/short, sound/longer, taste etc.) - length depends on the sense you are talking about
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SHORT TERM MEMORY |
- Anything that you are bringing from long tern memory and what you are actively thinking - keep things short term memory by rehearsal - can retrieve short term memory for long term memory by rehearsal •Capacity •Btwn 5- 9à (7 +/- 2) •Memory Span or digit span •“Chunking” (use this term b/c not specific or well defined)•Lose term, not everyone’s chunks are gonna be the same •What affects “chunks”?•Experiences•Meaning (top down process) •Duration=Only seconds •Memory eventually disappears b/c 2 things … •1. DECAY (?) – lose connection •2. Interference•Proactive= something that you have learned before interferes with something you are learning now (happens when you mislearn something )
•Retroactive= something you are learning interferes with what you have known before (learn new game rules and now cant remember what the old ones were) |
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PRIMACY EFFECT |
- frist words remembered
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RECENCY EFFECT |
- remember last words |
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ICONIC MEMORY |
- visual sensory memory Capacity= bigger than what it actually looked like (more than what you can remember) - can impose meaning to chunking and help us remember more than 7+/- 2 (increase short term memory) |
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HIPPOCAMPUS |
- Structure of the brain that makes it possible to go from short term memory to long term memory - active in making new memory EX. HM - hippocampus damage after bike accident - had hippocampus removed and amigdala - from then on he could not make conscious memory - if it was out of sight it was out of mind - he knew there was a problem with him but was not upset about it because amigdala removed= emotion loss - involved in consolidation |
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WORKING MEMORY MODEL (4) VPCE |
- a system that combines processing (what will I write next) with short term storage (what have I just written) 1. visuospatial 2. phonological loop 3. central executive 4. episodic buffer •All: Limited capacity
•All: Independent (means one can be used and other will not interfere |
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CENTRAL EXECUTIVE |
- the controller - this is what is done at this time and this needs to be moved around - you need info from phonological loop - boss/ most important component of working memory - can process info from any sensory modality - no storage capacity - involved in planning and coordinating - involve in inhibitory process prevents us from being distracted - study individual who suffer dysexecutive syndrome damage to frontal lobe causes impaired functioning of the central executive (damage withing prefrontal cortex)
functions include · 1. Task setting : simple planning · 2. Monitoring : checking that task is being performed adequately · 3. Energization :concentration/ sustained attention •Dysexecutive syndrome•People who have problems with central executive, coordinating and most likely damage to frontal lobe•Can’t inhibit anything
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PHONOLOGOCAL LOOP |
- Speech based info processed and stored - Subvocal articulation occurs - Phonological similarity effect: when you are rehearsing words you will have more inference if words are similar than if they are not ex. DAY, JAY, MAY, LAY etc. - recall is more difficult when sound of words are similar - Word length effect: shows that the longer words are the less you are going to remember ex. CULT, DAY, FATE vs. CIRCUMSTANCE, DEFIANCE, NARROWNESS - More important when reading foreign language because harder to work out pronunciation of the words
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VISUOSPATIAL SKETCHPAD |
- visual and spatial info processes - stores info briefly - visual = remembering what (temporal lobe) - spatial = remembering where (parietal lobe) - used to find route or when watching tv -- capacity: can hold 4 items, performance declines if more than 4 - blinds use spatial processing and better at routes than ppl who use visual processing (hippocampus bigger in blind people) - visual and spatial processing involve diff brain regions PHYSIOLOGICAL -- right hemisphere= spatial -- left hemisphere = visual males outperform females in spatial tasks |
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EPISODIC BUFFER |
§ can hold info from all of the above
- provides the glue to integrate info w/in working memory
- if two tasks use same component then cant be performed successfully together - if two tasks use different component then can be performed together or separately
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KF |
- became disabeled b/c trauma - (original model of memory says there is sensory info, short term, and long term, if looked at this way nothing can get to long term without going through short term first) - he was a patient who had bad short term memory as measured by a digit span but good long term memory - problem for the theory - he doesn't need to go through short term memory to get to long term memory - later not so much a problem b/c found: - later it was found that his short term memory was not as bad as they thought |
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CLIVE WEARING |
very diff. because damage was not due to surgery but virus that ate up his brain and eliminated hipocampus - old memories gone, but can still walk, talk, motor memory - cannot taste or know who anybody is, but his wife - everytime he sees his wife it’s like the first time he has seen her in a looong time - became disabled b/c of a virus - worst case of amnesia ever known |
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LONG TERM MEMORY |
- who you are and what has happened since you can remember - Think about things that have happened to you that shape you and make you who you are - everything we know/ learn - if you think about it this way then you can think about Clive a little bit different (he is a musician) |
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SLEEP AND CONSOLIDATION |
- act of sleeping actually consolidates memory - people who are remembering more are sleeping more - there is processing that goes on when you are asleep - hippocampus involved in consolidation
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LOSS OF INFO |
- decay of interferance |
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double dissociation |
patients with brain damage and later find out which particular area is invilved with which particular task - more convincing evidence brain is modulate?? - need to have 2 diff types of patients for this -one patient can't do what the other patient can DISSOCIATION=!only have one person |
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partial and Whole report study |
- part of a study done - was looking at the sensory store - was trying to see when you get info (did you only see 5 or do you only remember 5) - full report= tell me everything you saw - partial report= tell me what you remember from that particular space (telling us that all of it is being processed by sensory store, eyes take in all info, but then starts to decay) - there is a limit in memory not processing |
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infantile Amnesia |
- dont remember things that happened to us from ages 2- 4 - happens to everybody - can't remember what happens to us when we were little - no evidence that people can remember things before the age of 3 |
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hyeramnesia |
- super super good memory
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deficient memory |
- memory errors in any different ways Ex. Boundary extension (look at pic and when asked to describe it you fill in things) -errors occur when something unlike schematic or script predicted - social desirability: doing things you think other ppl want |
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contrast theories of how we make categories
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FEATURES EXEMPLARS PROTOTYPES |
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CREATING CATEGORIES |
- goes beyond perceptual things - Idea that we use every source of info we have - a lot more based on top down process - the one most likely to be used to create categories (ex. when you make a salad how do you know what goes in the salad; b/c you know) |
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non declarative knowledge |
- whether you can talk about it or not - things you can describe and talk about - implicit learning - unconsciously know they are learning something - type of long term memory |
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massed practice & distributed practice |
- cramming - not good for long term memory - Distributed practice is better |
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spacing effect |
- what you know works - spacing out youre time studying is better than cramming - strengthening memory - better over months than over days or weeks CAUSE: REM theory -- the more REM sessions following studying sessions, the more consolidation that occurs |
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things that help memory |
- pegword system - acronyms - relating it to self - acrostics - keyword system |
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biases |
how our biases are likely to effect what we remember - confirmation bias: what we think would have happened is what we remember (expect black man to commit crime remember him as criminal) - problem with all thinking - you are more likely to notice anything that corresponds to something you already believe hindsight: once you are told what happened you say oh yeah i knew that MORITONE MEMORY: dont remember how it got into your brain |
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digit span |
-most common way to measure short term memory - give you some numbers to see you can remember |
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EXHAUSTIVE SEARCH |
exhaustive: will take longer b/c you look at everything you keep looking after you find it self terminating task: will take less time b/c when you find item you stop |
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Line up composition & administration how is it done, how it can be better |
- when have all at the same time you are more likely to have a better match b/c look at more detail
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typical representatives of a category 3 theories explaining why we have typicality effect |
typiality effect: some things in a category are going to be considered btter exemplars ex. carrot is a veggie more typical than 1. prototype theory 2. Exemplar 3. Feature |
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misattribution |
- not knowing where we got our information from good source or bad source - problem in remembering because - related to source monitoring errors: cant tell where info is from |
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serial processing parallel processing |
SERIAL - doing one thing at a time - takes longer
PARALLEL - several things going on at same time - much faster |
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HM |
hippocampus removed from both sides by surgery to stop seizure - removed amigdala (affected emotions) - this is why he doesnt feel so bad about his situation - HM would not remember:
--semantic memories b/c wont remember new words that have appeared since surgery - would remember: -- mirror test: (Procedural memory) wont remember it but is getting better so he is learning - good at procedural memory( stores info on how to perform certain procedures - tells us hippocampus not involved with procedural memory - hippocampus not involved in nondeclarative memory
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pegword system |
attach a word to something that already has a list - ex. attach word to each letter of alphabet |
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how could you test if visual and spatial info are part of one system or separate systems INTERFERENCE |
- have somebody do two tasks that are supposed to be done by the same system -- one will interfere with the other - if have tasks that are separate wont see interference ex. singing a sing while another one is playing
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encoding storage and retreival
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what the processes are?? - intermediate- - shallow - deep - all of them have to work in order to remember ENCODING SPECIFICITY PRINCIPLE: context effect (ppl learning underwater willremember what they learned better underwater than on dry land) LANGUAGE SPECIFICITY EFFECT: remember things in native language or language it was learned in - how things are encoded is how they are recalled |
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retention |
how are you likely to remember things - another word for remembering |
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spreading activation |
- general way of how the brain works - one nodule is activated and everything around it is highlighted - process of how the brain works |
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eyewitness testimony |
- greatest cause of wrongful convictions nationwide - make sure there is no post event misinformation - Improving Identification Accuracy in Lineups - Presenting only one picture at a time - Making sure that all people in the lineup are reasonably similar to each other - Cautioning witnesses that the suspect may not be in the lineup •Inform witness perpetrator might not be in lineup •Use “fillers” in lineup similar to suspect •Use sequential presentation (not simultaneous) •Improve interviewing techniques •Cognitive interview - Improving the Accuracy of Witnesses’ Information - Slow down the rate of questioning. - Re-create the original context. cognitive interview - Tailor questions to the individual witness. - Make the interview witness-centered rather than interviewer-centered. - Be sensitive to the distinction between correct and incorrect responses.
- Be sensitive to temptations to form premature conclusions.
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TESTING EFFECT |
- long term retention of material is better when memory is tested during the time of learning/ learning period is devoted to retrieving the to-be remembered info. - consisted finding that when you are tested you are learning more than when you are not testing yourself - independent from studying, it is the actual testing that helps - while taking test brain is recalling/ retrieving
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IMPLICIT LEARNING (MEMORY) |
- learning what you do when you are not trying to learn something - most of the time you are learning things implicitly is: robustness age independence low variability IQ independence commonality of process |
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LEVELS OF PROCESSING |
1. shallow processing: physical features 2. intermediate processing 3. deep processing: accessing meaning - at the time of encoding you are getting more right because task is easier, but do worse at testing b/c don't process it as well |
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SEMANTIC MEMORY |
- every single fact you know - language (most people with damage dont have language problems) - recognition of faces - less likely to be affected by amnesia(memory problems) - has deeper level of processing because need to access all information in long term memory - world knowledge - if time of encoding and testing are the same you are going to do better than if they were different - |
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DECLARATIVE MEMORY |
- Explicit memory and conscious 2 categories -- 1. episodic (ex. flashbulb memory; where you were when 9/11 happened) --2. semantic (world knowledge) - based on meaning |
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NONDECLARATIVE MEMORY |
- implicit memory and unconscious - things you know how to do but dont know how you do them 3 categories --1. procedural memory: (walking driving) - unaware of the fact that you know how to do them --2. Priming (perceptual semantic): pre coached to respond to something - something reminds you of something - even more unaware - we see it in semantic relationship --3. association & non-associative learning - general learning |
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EPISODIC MEMORY |
- Personal memories - very malleable depending how you think about them ex. everytime you tell a story you are likely to change it - difficult to remember things accurately - attached to a specific time - constructive(not a copy of what really happened) -- ppl are more likely to construct things as if they were better than they actually were --we are better at remembering happy things as opposed to bad things -- depressed people have a better sense of reality IF YOU COULD NOT FORGET: - every emotion attached to that memory is relived every time you remember it |
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SCHEMAS (FOR SEMANTIC MEMORY) |
- top-down processes - things that help you remember but also misremember - how we make sense of semantic memory - you have a framework - you remember what happens more if it is part of your schema - also likely to remember something that didn't happen (what you expect is what you remember) RATIONALIZATION: - what we do if something doesn't fit our schema - we want to remember things as if they fit our schema ex. People were put in room and asked to remember the things in it people would misremember things that were not there that shouldve been there IMPLICATIONS - Easy to implant new memories if fit with your schemas
- in real life: testifying for a crime; if you are racist you will “remember” person you are expecting |
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PRIMING EFFECT |
- Happens without thinking -procedural ex. words activated when use word completion or fill in the blank - procedural and priming not affected by the hippocampus - next time something is shown to us we should remember it
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PROCEDURAL MEMORY/ TASKS |
- mirror test= this is how they test procedural memory - things you just know how to do like walking (motor skills) - as you do it more and more you remember it better and you get at it without knowing so
**àlanguage = not procedural Hippocampus involved HM cant learn/ remember new words
Vocab is explicit not implicit |
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AMNESIA |
- Mostly seen in declarative memory (not so much damage in nondeclarative & procedural memory)
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ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA |
- Forget toward the front |
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RETROGRADE AMNESIA |
- forget toward the back |
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PROACTIVE INTERFERENCE |
- we forget more b/c of interference than b/c of decay - older info affects later newer info - we see this because something that is solid and consolidated interferes |
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RETROACTIVE INTERFERENCE |
- new memories interfere with old memories - more recent learning interferes with memory for something in the past - original memory trace is not replaced |
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INTERFERENCE |
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POST EVENT MISINFORMATION EFFECT |
- If someone gives you info after an event occurred that is what you remember happened
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RECONSOLIDATION/CONSOLIDATION (saved) |
- when change file you reconsolidate and then THAT is what gets saved - memories very succeptible to being changed - you change it based on what is likely to be changed by other peopl |
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FLASHBULB MEMORIES |
- events that are particularly surprising or arousing - ex. where were you when 9/11 happened - shared by everyone in your community - may conflict because nobody remembers the same way |
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FALSE MEMORIES |
- you're going to be fooled by something that fits your schema ex. study: parents describe 2 childhood experiences plus a photohraph - told 2 true events and a false one - will remember the made up one more - more likely to remember false event if they had seen a photograph |
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REMINISCENCE BUMP |
•What events are remembered well? •Significant events in a person’s life •(college grad, married, kids) •Highly emotional events •Transition points •Reminiscence Bump: Participants over the age of 40 asked to recall events in their lives
•Memory is high for recent events and for events that occurred in adolescence and early adulthood (between 10 and 30 years of age) - bump would be earlier if culture expected it that way - SELF IMAGE(period of assuming person's self- image) remember things at age 20-10 because they are important in YOUR life - COGNITIVE(a lot of things changing so you remember them) encoding is better during periods of rapid change - CULTURAL LIFE SCRIPT: culturally shared expectations structure recall |
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MISLEADING INFORMATION |
- Misleading information after a person witnesses an event can change how that person describes the event later |
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SOURCE MONITORING ERROR |
- Failure to distinguish the source of information - misleading post-event info is misattributed to the original source ex.•Lindsey, 1990 •Heard a story; two days later again with some details changed •Told to ignore changes •Same voice for both stories created source monitoring errors •Changing voice (male to female) did not create as many errors •Hyman et el.,1995 •Participants’ parents gave descriptions of childhood experiences •Participant had conversation about experiences with experimenter; experimenter added “new” events •When discussing it later, participant “remembered” the new events as actually happening |
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CONTENT EFFECTS ON MEMORY |
- what you remember is affected by what you are being asked ex. “How fast were the cars going when they ________ into each other?” (smashed, collided, bumped, hit, contacted)
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SOURCE MISATTRIBUTION |
•After 24 hours, some non-famous names were misidentified as famous •Explanation: some non-famous names were familiar, and the participants misattributed the source of the familiarity •Failed to identify the source as the list that had been read the previous day
In advertising: watch a source on some medical condition and if you see a commercial right after, you’re likely to think you saw the recommendation during the show. |
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LINEUPS |
•Assumption that perpetrator is in lineup •Distractor selection is also important •Should be similar so people pay more attention to details •The more similar the better
•Police behavior may also influence
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FEEDBACK TO EYEWITNESSES |
- confidence in one's memories may be increased by postevent questioning |
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CONFESSIONS |
,DHBC;QKWD |
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CHILDREN AS EYEWITNESSES |
•Children’s recollections are particularly susceptible to distortion •Leading questions may distort memory •The younger the child, the less reliable the testimony •Susceptible to pressure •May believe that they recall things that others have said they observed •McMartin case •Daycare accused to child molestation… •Kids were coming up with stories but by then the kids had already been questioned by the parents
•Everything that shouldn't’t have been done was done in this case - children are just as likely as adults to be mislead - more succeptible to believe things others say they observed ex. •Paul Ingram case •Elizabeth loctus ted talk case |
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PROSPECTIVE MEMORY |
- remembering things toward the future ex. buy bread on my way home; going to the dentist on wednesday - declines with age - real life: older adults better at remembering prospective things - lab setting: young adults better than older adults |
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MNEMONICS (7) CIPMAAK |
- ways to increase memory •Categorical clustering •Interactive images •Pegword system •Method of loci •Acronyms •Acrostics
•Keyword system |
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CATEGORICAL CLUSTERING |
- when given a list out of order you are more likely to remember them if you organize them and categorize them to help you remember
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INTERACTIVE IMAGES |
- imaging things together to not forget |
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PEGWORD SYSTEM |
- there is a list you already know so you attach something to that list that you already know ex. cammel monday, pig tuesday, etc. - would remember animals in that order now |
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METHOD OF LOCI |
- you walk through a place that you know and make connection to something that is in order ex. you walk to your house house --> door pig --> couch scissors--> imagine the scissors cutting the pig on the couch cheese--> table(imagine cheese melting on the table)
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ACRONYMS |
making a word with the first letter of the words you need to memorize |
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ACROSTICS |
- making sentences - Ex. PLease Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally |
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KEYWORD SYSTEM |
- one key word is going to help you remember another one |
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REHEARSAL |
- elaborative rehearsal is better than maitenance rehearsal - enhances/strengthens memory |
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MEMORY CONSOLIDATION AND REM |
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CONCEPTS AND CATEGORIES |
- very very similar - distinction between the two is not very clear - concept can be a category and category can be a concept - we need labels sos we dont have to learn things all over again |
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CONCEPTS |
- Unit of symbolic knowledge (something you can have a concept of) - mental representation of an item and associated knowledge and beliefs (cat, tools, furniture) (not something you can make a list of, it's something that is in your head) - basic level |
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BASIC LEVEL |
- we are more likely to think of basic level first - most likely label people will use is a basic term - when children are learning names they will use basic level first too - has largest number of features - different cultures tend to use the same basic-level categories, at least for living things ex. chair, bird |
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CATEGORIZATION LEVELS |
1. Superordinate (furniture, animal) - "tools" (covers everything) 2. Basic Level (chair, bird) - shares more features - not losing info but also dont have so much detail 3. Subordinate (bean bag, robin ) - requires that you have more expertise |
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CATEGORIES |
- group of items - set or class of items - rule used to organize concepts (think of things as being basic levels and then categories, categories would be the bigger in one) |
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NATURAL CATEGORIES |
- plants, animals, live things |
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ARTIFACT CATEGORIES |
- Anything man made |
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AD HOC CATEGORIES |
- aka goal directed - become a category when you need them ex. things you are going to pack if going on vacation |
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DEFINING FEATURES (classical view) |
- classical view: first way of thinking how categories are created - defining features: how you define a category or a concept ex. how you define a dog, cat etc. ---- what is the defining feature of a mime cant speak– only defining character but if have this characteristic you’re still not necessarily a mime
there isnt anything that serve as defining character for everything! •Grouping by specific features that every member MUST have
•(if it doesn’t have them its not one of those things) •Works better with classical concepts than with other categories •However, it is difficult to specify necessary features of some concepts
APPLE: round, red, sweet, has a little stem |
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PROTOTYPE THEORY |
- specific image of one object - grouping based on similarity to an averaged model •Characteristic features describe what members of a particular concept are like •Monster •scary •sharp teeth
•evil - you have to figure out a way that whenever you see a dog it is matched with what you see in your brain ex. see chihuhua and st. bernard and still recognize both as dogs despite how different they are
APPLE: what an apple should look like |
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EXEMPLAR THEORY |
- No single prototype but rather multiple examples convey idea what the concept represents - Vegetable concept (exemplars= carrot, broccoli, squash, corn, celery, lettuce)
- The more similar a specific exemplar is to a known category member, the faster it will be categorized Compare defining features, with prototypes and exemplars. •Ex. Car •Basic defining features: not one defining feature unless you make concept more narrow ex. Working car •Prototype: (not real image) has wheels, windows doors
•Exemplars: sedan (most car like one), mini van, *truck, convertible, coupe, suv, racecar
APPLE: red delicious, fuji, jonagold, honey crisp (specific kind of apple) |
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TYPICALITY EFFECT |
-•Some things are better examples of a concept than others •A blue jay is a more typical bird than a penguin - things that are more typical are easier for brain to access - if you look at the typical list you are more likely to find similar characteristics |
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NODES |
- represent (typically) concepts in memory - relations represented links among sets of nodes |
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SEMANTIC NETWORK MODELS |
ROBIN ---property---> WINGS
Robin= neuron property = has..., type of..., part of..., characteristic leads to... -wings= connections - There are connection btwn items and whatever properties they have - Very generic link btwn something and a property
- Very schematic very basic representation
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COLLINS & QUILIANS NETWORK MODEL |
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HIERARCHICAL ORGANIZATION |
- There are categories and they break down to sharing more properties and less properties and lesser properties ex. . - respond faster to canary is a bird than a canary is an animal - |
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SCRIPTS |
•Type of schema about events
•Structure captures general information about routine Scripts have typical roles - What happens when reality doesn’t match your script? -- scripts are different for different people but some things there will be in common -- you are more likely to incorporate part of the script that is not there -- will lead to a lot of errors |
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STEREOTYPES |
•Oversimplified generalizations
•Positive or negative you have put things into a specific category to take shortcuts likely to change to change stereotypes you have to let go of info (confirmation bias) you already have Confirmation bias(mean that stereotypes and ideas are supported by stereotypes) |
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PHONOLOGICAL SIMILARITY EFFECT |
recall is more difficult when sound of words are similar |
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WORD LENGTH EFFECT |
- word span is greater for short words than long words (when time is to pronounce words is shorter) (shows capacity of phonological loop limited in temporal duration)
- More important when reading foreign language because harder to work out pronunciation of the words |
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CAPACITY |
- involves presenting items in random order - # of items that an individual can recall immediately in the correct order - used to measure capacity of short term memory - reading span (most sentences read for comprehension for which an individual can remember the last words more than 50% of the time) taken as a measure of a persons working memory capacity
- operation span: most number of items (math ?s and words) for which a person can remember all the last words
- people with more working memory capacity are smarter, but we don’t know the causality
- strongly associated with fluid intelligence (rapid understanding of novel relationships)
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MULTIPLE MEMORY SYSTEM V. UNITARY STORE APPROACH |
UNITARY STORE APPROACH: - - emphasize similarities of long term and short term memory
- suggests both are closely connected
- short term memory is activated long term memory
- amnesic people only show short term impairment if task depends substancially on long term memory
MULTIPLE MEMORY SYSTEM |
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MEMORY DISTORTIONS |
- think we remember a word being there because associated with the other words but was never really there
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REPRESSED MEMORY |
memory of a traumatic event unconsciously retained in the mind, where it is said to adversely affect conscious thought, desire, and action |
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SERIAL MEMORY PROCESSING |
SELF TERMINATING : implies that comparisons stop abruptly as soon as the target is found, and then the response is generated. Evidence for this method is found in reaction time studies. EXHAUSTIVE:where every possible item is looked after while trying to find something.
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DECLARATIVE MEMORY |
- aka EXPLICIT MEMORY - involves consciouse recollection of info |
