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220 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Herbivores
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Mainly eat plants ( autotrophs)
*anything that goes through photosynethise |
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Carnivores
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Eat other animals
* example of TRUE Carni's are the big cats |
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Omnivores
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eat both plant and animals
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ways to obtain and ingest food
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Suspension feeders
substrate feeders fluid feeders Bulk feeeders |
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Suspension feeders
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eats what is in their enviorment
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substrate feeders
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eats through enviorment
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fluid feeders
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eats fluid
* example: fly drinks blood to get nutrience |
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bulk feeders
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ingest food whole
*humans are bulk feeders |
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4 stages of food processing
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1. ingesting
2. digestion 3. absorbtion 4. elimination |
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Ingestion
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act of eating
*bringing food in |
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digestion
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breaking down food into molecules small enough for body to absorb
* starts in mouth |
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Absorption
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uptake of nutrience by cells in digestive track
* small intestine |
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Elimination
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collect and compact what you don't want in the body
* going out of the body through your colon |
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Organs of the human digestive system
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Mouth (oral cavity and tounge)
Pharynx Esophagus stomach small intestine large intestine rectum anus |
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accessory glands for digestive system
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salivary glands
Liver pancreas gall bladder |
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Pharynx
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come together with oral and nose
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saliva
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moisens food to get through body
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esophagus
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food tube; surrounded by a lot of smooth muscle to push down food
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spincter
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smooth muscle surrounding tube(gate keeper)
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Gall Bladder
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secretes bile to help break down food through organs
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Oral Cavity
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Tounge
teeth salivary glands |
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Tounge
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muscle with taste buds
help to manipulate food into a bolus |
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teeth
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allow for the mechanical digestion of food
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salivary glands
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deliver saliva
* helps get the food through intestine |
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Peristalsis
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moves food throught the esophagus to the stomach
*contractions |
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epiglottis
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seperates the esophagus( for digestion)
& the trachea(lungs) |
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Stomach lining is made up of three basic cells
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1. Mucous cells
*secrete mucus 2. Parietal cells * secrete hydrogen and chloride 3.chief cells * secrete pepsinogen(inactive protein *pepsin (active form) |
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Acid reflux
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back flow of chyme into lower esophagus causing painful feeling ( heartburn)
* if it is frequent (GERD) * spincter is immature and cant hold back acids |
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Gastric ulcers
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bacteria burrow in mucus layer of stomach
release amoniom; cell exposed; hurt cells * peptobismo treatment |
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liver and gall bladder
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liver produces bile
gall bladder stored bile |
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three regions of small intestine
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Duodenum:close to stomach
Ileum: close to Lg. Intestine Jejunum: space between |
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Sm. Intestine's main job
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nutrient absobortion
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Villi
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lining inside of small intestine
covered with epithial cells |
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Liver
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1st most important: creates bile
2nd most important: detoxify blood |
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function of colon
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absorb water
Produces solid mass of material |
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large intestine
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binds to small intestine in T-shape junciton
* Cecum at end of junction *appendix hangs off of the cecum |
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Lungs (gas exchange) has three steps
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Breathing
Transport of gasses by circulatory system & exchange of gases with body cells |
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Inhalation
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breathing in oxygen
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exhalation
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breathing out carbon dioxide
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transport of gases
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oxygen binds to hemoglobin in Red blood cells
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exchange of gases with body cells
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oxygen leaves RBC's and enters body cells
* Carbon dioxcide removed from cells and taken back to lungs for exhalation |
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Lungs are located in
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the thoracic cavity; protected by rib cage
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Air route
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*Nasal cavity
*Pharnyx *larynx(voice box) *trachea (windpipe); has ridges of cartilage *bronchi ( singular is bronchus) *bronchioles *Alveoli |
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diaphram
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controls breathing
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Alveoli
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Tiny Air sacs
* covered in capillaries (small blood vessles *epithelial cells of alveoli secrete surfactant; so thin layers of cells don't stick together (better breathing) |
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Breathing
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alternation between inhalation and exhalation
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Negative pressure breathing
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* Air pulled into lungs
* Rib cage expands during Inhalation Diaphram moves downward * diaphragm relaxes dring exhahlation Diaphragm moves upward |
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Dead air
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some air doesnt leave during exhahaltion
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Automatic control
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breathing control center in brain
*Pons and Medulla |
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Step 1 in Auto Control
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Medulla center signals diaphragm and rib muscles to contract. from nerve signals
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step 2 in Auto. Control
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Pons center controls rate of breathing in response to change in pH
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step 3 in Auto control
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secondary control center mnitor gas levels in the blood
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Hemoglobin
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oxygen is bound to special proteins: respiration pigments (hemoglobin)
* iron in found in the core of each subunit (Heme group) |
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carbon dioxide
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combines with water and is broken down to carbonie acid and broke down to hydrogen ions and bicarbonate
and can be reversed CO2 and O buffers the blood. |
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In every Circulatory system
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Muscular pump (heart)
Circulatory fluid (blood) set of tubes or vessles to carrry fluid |
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Red blood V.S. Blue blood
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Red: oxygen rich
Blue: Oxygen Poor |
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All cells need...
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Nutrients
gas exchange Removal of waste |
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Open circulatory system
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Arthropods and many molluscs
Blind ended tubes * blood vessles just end heart pumps blood through open-ended vessels cells directly bathed in blood |
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Closed circulatory system
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Vertebrates, earth worms, squids, octopuses
* blood stays confined to vessels * a heart pumps blood through arteries to capillaries * veins return blood to heart |
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Arteries
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Arterioles
*large in diameter |
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Veins
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Venules
*large |
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Capillaries
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capillary beds
*Small |
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double circulation
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*humans
seperated pulmonary (lungs) and systemic circuits (rest of body) |
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two chambered heart
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*fish pumps blood through single circute
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three chambered hearts
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amphibians
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four chambered heart
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crocs, birds, mammals
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know how the double circulatioin of humans work!!!
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slide 23.3
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2 chambers on top and 2 chambers on bottom of heart is called?
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left and right Atria :Top
Left and Right ventricles: bottom |
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what direction does blood always go through the heart in
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blood always goes in the Atria to the ventricals
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veins bring blood to the heart... T/F
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True
*pulmonary vein *superior/ inferior vena cava |
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Pulmonary vein
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from lungs to heart
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superior vena cava
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from upper body to heart
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inferior vena cava
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from lower body to heart
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arteries carry blood away from the heart... T/F
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True
* pulmonary artery *Aorta |
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Pulmonary artery
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away from the heart to lungs
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Aorta
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away from the heart to the body
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Blood flow in the human heart has valves that direct flow of the blood
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2 semilunar valves; top/ pervent blood from going to arteries
2 atrioventricular valve: bottom/ seperate atruim to ventrical |
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Diastole
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from veins into the heart chambers
* heart is filling up |
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Systole
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from atria into ventricles
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Cardiac output
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amount of blood/ minute pupmed into systemic circuit
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heart rate
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number of beats/minute
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heart valves
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prevent the back flor of blood
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the pumping of the heart is
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series of contractions and relaxations of the heart muscles
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order in which the heart pumps is
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1. diastole: entire heart is relaxed, semilunar valves closed
and AV are open 2. systole : atria contracts * ventricles contract while semilunar vavles are open and AV valves are closed. |
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heart murmur
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a defect in one or more heart valves
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stroke
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death of brain tissure from blocked artery
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the pacemaker (SA nodes)
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sets the rate of the heart contractions
generates electrical dignals in atria |
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process of SA nodes
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1. pacemaker makes singal to contract
2. spreads through atria and delayed at AV nodes 3. signal relays to apex of heart 4. signals spread through ventricles. |
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AV node
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relays theses signal to the ventricles
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electrocardiogram (ECG)
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records elctrical changes in heart
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Heart attack
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also known as Myocardial infraction
* damange or death of cardiac muscle due to a blockage usually coronary artery |
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Atherosclerosis
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blood flow is reducced by plaques develope inside inner walls of blood vessels and narrows blood vessel
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Cardiovascular disease
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heart and blood vessels
stroke atherosclerosis |
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function of blood vessels
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transport nutrients, hormones and oxygen to the tissues
transports waste and CO2 to appropriate regions |
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Capillaries
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thin walled- a single layer of epi cells
narrow- blood cells flow in single file increase surface area fro gas fluid exchange |
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arteries and veins
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lined by single layer of epi cells smooth muscle in wall: reduce blood flow
elastic fibers permit recoil after streching *veins have one-way valves that restrict backwards flow... not artieries |
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structure of blood vessels
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epithelium
smooth muscle connective tissue |
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blood pressure
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the force blood exerts on vessel walls
*decrease as blood moves away *highest in arteries *lowest in veins |
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blood pressure is mesured by
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*Systolic pressure: caused by ventricular contraction
* diastolic pressure: low pressure between contractions |
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pulse
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the rythmic strecthing of arteries
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precapillary sphincters
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smooth muscle bands blood goes trhough the thoroughfar channel
-to direct blood flow |
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Edema
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the accumulation of fluid in the tissue
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plasma
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cells suspend in a liquid matrix called plasma
* help maintain the ozmotic pressure |
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Plasma contains
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various inorganic ions
proteins nutrients wastes gases hormones |
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Red Blood Cells (RBC)
Erythrocytes |
transports O2 bound to hemoglobin
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White blood cells (WBC)
Leukocytes |
function inside and out of the circulatory system
*fight infection and cancer *Monocytes *neutrophils *basophils *eosinophils *lymphocytes |
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Platelets
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cellular fragments
*involved in clotting |
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steps of clotting
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1. plateles find damage and bind to connective tissue: release chemicals
2. form a platelets plug 3. fibrin clot trap RBC precvent them from leaking |
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Multipotent stem cells
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found in bone marrow can become all types of RBC, WBC and Platelets
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Leukemia
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cancer of the WBC
treatment with bone marrow transplant |
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Lymphoid
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lymphocytes
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Myeloid stem cells
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*Basophils
*Eosinophils *Neutrophils *monotrophils *monocytes *platelets *Erythrocytes |
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Innate Immunity
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* first line of defense
*occurs whether or not the pathogen has been encountered before *external and internal barriers |
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Innate immunity
* external barriers |
flush out pathogens
Skin/ exoskeleton secretions mucous membranes tears ear wax |
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Innate immunity
* internal barriers |
phagocytuc cells
NK cells Defensive protiens Inflammtion response |
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aquired immunity
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previouse exposer to pathogen enhances response
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Aquired immunity has
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antibodys
lymphocytes |
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Natural killers (NK cells)
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receive virual infected cells and program them to die
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defensive proteins
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complement proteins
interferons inflammatory response |
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interferons
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chemical signal is secreded to warn infection is near and turn on gene to fight off the infection when it comes
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inflammatory response
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commponent of innate immmunity
* mechanical damage to tissue cause this respose *red, warm and swollen |
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Red, warm and swollen
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Red: dialtion in blood vessles
Warm: increase movement (more heat) swollen: increase of permentation |
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lympathic system
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involved in both innate and acquired immunity
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Lymphatic system includes
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branching network of vessels(carries lymph)
Lympnodes: oran housing numerous immune cells Adenios tonsils appendix spleen |
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what is big primary organs in lymphatic system
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Thymus and Bone marrow (site of WBC development)
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Lymphocytes
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born in bone marrow
go to thymus to get trained to fight infection |
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Lymphatic vessels
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collect fluid from body tissue
return it as lymp to the blood |
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lymph organs
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spleen and lymph nodes
packed with WBC for fighting infections |
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as lymph circulate through lympathic organs it
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collects
transports them to lymphatic organs |
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aquired immunity
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only found in vertebrates
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antigen
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foreign invador
makes an antibody to fight off infection |
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aquired immunity has memory
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recognized antigens it has seen before for a prompt immune attack
* why vaccines work!! |
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active immunity
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person's own immunity system make the antibody to fight infection
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passive immunity
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receive pre-med anthibodies
Ex: mothers breast milk transfers antibody to baby... |
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Acquired imunity has two division
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Humoral immune response
cell mediated immune response |
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humoral immune response
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secretion of antibodies by B lymphocytes into blood and lymp
* B lymphocytes develop in the bone marrow |
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Cell mediated immune response
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defensive attacks on cell by T Lymphocytes
* T lymphocytes develop in the Thymus |
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B cells
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secrete antibodies
mount the humoral immune respose |
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T cells
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attack cells infected with bacteria or viruses
cell-mediated immune response |
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Antigens
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most are proteins or large polysaccharides on the surface of
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antigenic determinants
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specific regions on an antigen
to which antibodies bind |
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Active B cells start clonal selection
Produce 2 population |
*plasma (effector) cells
* memory cells |
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Plasma(effector) cells
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secrete antibody
Short lived secrete lots of antibody into the blood and lymph |
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memory cells
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tucked away for next time
antegin comes in long lived used for second exposer to antigen |
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Primary response
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is first response to antigen
produces effector cells memory cells that may confer lifelong immunity |
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secondary response
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second exposure to antigen
antibody concentration increases for secondary response |
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antibodies
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secreted from plasma B cells (effectors)
into the blood and lymph |
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antibody molecule
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Y-Shaped
2 antigen binding sites specific to the antigenic determinants that elicited its secretion |
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four polypeptides
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2 heavy chains
2 light chains "C" constant and variable regions |
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2 types of T cells
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helper T cells
Cytotoxic T cells |
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cell-mediated immune response
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antegin presenting self
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Helper T cells receptors
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recognize the self-nonself complexes
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Cytotoxic T cells
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only that kill infected cells
binds to infected body cells desrtoys them |
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Apitoses
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Prgrammed cell death
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Neurcrotic
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dead cell tissue
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Thermoregulaition
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maintenance of internal temperature
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Endotherm regulators
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Warmed mostly by the heat generates through metabolism
* action that takes place inside * birds mammals, humans |
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ectotherms regulators
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warmed by external sources
* most fish reptiles an amphibians * ambiount temp of enviorment |
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heat is gained or lost in four ways
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Conduction
convection Radiation Evaporation |
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Conduction
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conduction: trandfer of heat b/w object that are in contact
* heat moves from areas that are warmer to areas that are colder |
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Convection
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Transfer of heat by movemnt of air across a surface
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radiation
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emission of electromagnetic waves
object do not need to be in direct contact |
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Evaporation
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loss of heat from a surface
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5 adaptions that help aniamls thermoregulate
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Metabolic heat production
insulatioin circulatory adaptations evaporative cooling behavioral response |
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Metabollic heat productioin
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shivering
increased physical activity hormonal changes boost metabolic rate in birds and mammals |
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insulation
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hair
feathers fat layers |
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circulatory adaptations
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increase or decrease blood flow to skin
large ears in elephants countercurrent heat exchange |
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evaporative cooling
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sweating
panting |
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Behavioral response
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used by endotherms and ectotherms
Ex: moving to the sun or shde mirgatign Bathing |
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Osmoconformers
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animals that do not gain or lose water
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osmoregulators
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regulate water loss and gain
*humans -intake water via food and drink -loss of water through excrection, respiratory surfaces and evapration |
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Nitrogenous wastes
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result from breakdown of amino acids (protein) and nucleic acids
*ammonia *urea Uric acids |
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ammonia
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poisonous
souble in water easily disposed of by aquatic animals |
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Urea
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less toxic
easier to store some land animals save water by excretinf uric acid |
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Urinary system
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forming excreting urine, regulating water and ions in body fluids
* many components is kidneys |
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function unit of the kidney is the Nephron
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Bowman's capsule
loop of Henle Proximal and distal tubules collecting ducts |
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The excretory system
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expels wastes
regulates water balance regulates ion balance |
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Nephrons
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Functional units of the kidneys
extract a Filtrate from the blood Refinne the filtrate to produce urine |
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Urine
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Ureters drain the kidneys
stored in the urinary bladder expelled through the urehra |
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Production and disposal of urine occurs in four processes
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Filtration
filtration reabsorption secretion excretion |
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Filtration
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blood pressure forces water and many small solutes into the nephron
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Reabsorption
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valuable sloutes are reclaimed from the filtrate
wha the body wants to keep |
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secretion
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anything missed can be brought into the nephron
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Excretion
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the final product, urine, is excreted from the body
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Reabsorption in the proximal and distal tubules removes
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nutrients
salt water |
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pH is regulated by
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reabsorpition of HCO-3
secretion of H+ |
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Kidney
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resposible for filtering blood
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Locomotion
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active travel from place to place
*overcomming friction and gravity |
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Types of movement
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swimming
movement on land flying |
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kidney
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responsible for filtering blood
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locomotion
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active travel from place to place
* overcomig friction and gravity |
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types of locomotion
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swimming
movement on land flying |
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swimming
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supported by water
slowed by friction |
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movement on land
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walking hopping or running
* less affected by friction *must resist gravity burrowing and crawling * overcome great friction * move side to side undulations *or move by a form of peristalsis |
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flying
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wings are airfoils that generate lift
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Skeleton provides
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body support
movement by muscles protection of internal organs |
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three main types of skeletons
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Hydrostatic
exoskeleton endoskeleton |
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hydrostatic skeleton
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fluid held underpressure in a closed body compartmemnt
*worms |
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exoskeleton
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very ridiged composed of non-living material
shed of molted |
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endoskeleton
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internal skeleton
made of * cartilage of bone -vertebrates *spicules - sponges * hard plates- echinoderms |
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human skeleton consist of
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axial skeleton
appendicular skeleton |
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axial skeleton
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skull, backbone, rib cage
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Back bone
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7 cervical vertebrea
12 thoracic 5 lumbar sacrum coccyx |
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Appendicular skeleton
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bones that ancor oter bones to the axial skeleton
* pelvic and sholder girdle * arms and legs |
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bone composed of
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spongy bone
compact bone cartilage bone marrow *yellow and red |
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Cartilage
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at ends of bones
-cushions joints -reduce friction of movement |
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long bones
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a fat-storing central cavity
spongy bone |
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joints located
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where bones meet
-ligaments are found connecting bone to bone |
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types of joints
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ball and socket
hinge joint pivot joint |
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tendons
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connect muscle to bone
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ligaments
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connect bone to bone
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muscle hierarchcial organization
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muscle
muscle fiber myofibrils filaments *actin *myosin |
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sacomere
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is the contractile unit of muscle
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sliding-filament model
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myosin head of thick filament
-binds to ATP -Extend to high energy states Then attach to binding sites on the actin molecules pull the thin filament towards the center of the srcomere |
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Motor neurons
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carry action potentials that initiate muscle contaction
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the axon of a motor
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forms a synaps with a muslce
at a neuromuscular junction |
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Acetylcholine
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is released from the synaptic terrminal of a motor neuron
diffuses to the plasma membrane of the muscle fiber |
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action potential in a muscle fiber
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passes along T tubules
into the center of muscle fiber |
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calcium ions
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are released from the endoplasmic reticulum
Initiate muscle contraction by moving regulatory proteins away from the actin binding sites |
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motor unit consist of
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neuron
set of muscle fibers it controls |
