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149 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Homeostasis
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A bodies ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even though the outside world conditions change continuously
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HOMEOSTASIS CONTROL MECHANISMS
Variable |
factor/event being regulated
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HOMEOSTASIS CONTROL MECHANISMS
Receptor |
Some type of sensor that monitors the environment and reponds to changes by sending information to the second component
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HOMEOSTASIS CONTROL MECHANISMS
Control centre |
Determines the set point then determines an apppropriate course of action
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HOMEOSTASIS CONTROL MECHANISMS
Effector |
Provides the measn for the control centres response
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Negative feedback
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Shuts of the original stimulus or reduces its intensity
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Positive feedback
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Causes the variable to deviate further and further from its original range
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Supine
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Body lying face upwards
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Prone
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Body lying face down
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Superior
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Above
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Inferior
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Below
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Anterior
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Front of the body
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Posterior
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Back of the body
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Medial
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Middle of the body
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Lateral
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Away from the middle of the body
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Proximal
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Closer to the origin of the body part
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Distal
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Further from the origin of the body part
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Superficial
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Toward the body surface
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Deep
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Away from the body surface
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External
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Further from the centre of an organ or cavity regardless of direction
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Internal
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closer to the centre of an organ or cavity regardless of direction
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Bilateral
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Paired structures having right and left members
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Unilateral
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Those occuring on only one side
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Ipsilateral
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Refers to something occurring on the same side of the body to another structure
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Contralateral
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Occurring on the opposite side of the body relative to another structure
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Axial part of the body
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Main axis of the body - head/neck/trunk
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Appendicular part
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Consists of the appendages and limbs
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Sagittal plane
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vertical plane that divides the body into left and right sections
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Coronal/Frontal plane
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Divides the body into front and back sections
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Transverse plane
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Cross section
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Oblique Sections
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Cuts made between the horizontal and vertical planes
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Longitudinal sections
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Run lengthwise/parallel to the long axis
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Dorsal Body Cavity
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Posterior - cranial cavity and spinal cavity
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Ventral Body Cavity
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Anterior - houses internal organs
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Flexion
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decreasing the angle between bones of parts of the body (bending)
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Dorsiflexion
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Flexion at the ankle joint
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Plantarflexion
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Standing on your toes
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Extension
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Increasingthe angle between the bones or parts of the body
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Abduction
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Moving away from the median plane in the frontal plane
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Adduction
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Moving toward the median plane in the frontal plane
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Circumduction
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Circular movement which is a combination of flexion, extension, adduction and abduction
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Rotation
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Turning or revolving a part of the body around its longitudinal axis
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Pronation
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Rotational movement of the forearm and hand that swings the radius medially around its longitudinal axis so that the palm of the hand faces posteriorly
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Supination
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Rotational movement of the forearm and hand that swings the radius medially around its longitudinal axis so that the palm of the hand faces anteriorly
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Opposition
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The pad of the thumb is brought to another digit pad
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Reposition
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Bringing the thumb back from another digit pad
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Protusion
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Forward movement
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Retrusion
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Movement backwards
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Elevation
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Raise
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Depression
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Lower
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Eversion
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Moves the sole of the foot away from the median plane - turning it laterally
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Inversion
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Moves the sole towards the median plane
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Australopithicus Africanus period and where they were found
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3-2.2 million years ago; east and south Africa
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Homo erectus time period and where they were found
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2-0.4 million years ago; Africa, Asia, Europe
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Homo Sapiens Neanderthalensis time period and where they were found
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200,000 - 300,000 years ago; Europe and Asia
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Definition of Evolution
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Inherit characteristics through genetic variation
Variation is acted upon by natural selection Survival of the fittest |
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Out of Africa Model
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We arose in Africa and after we had fully developed migrated north and wiped out other populations
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Multi regional Evolution
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Local populations in Europe, Asia and Africa developed separately and similarities are due to interbreeding over time
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What makes humans human?
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Bipedalism
Live in permanent bisexual groups Large brains, complex learning Culture is the fundamental adaptive strategy Obtain food through some division of labour (food is then shared) Females are sexually active throughout the year |
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Features of bipedalism
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Foramen Magnum further forward
Spine with distinct curves Pelvis in form of a basin Lower limbs are elongated - feet are placed directly below pelvis Femur angled inward Big toe enlarged Longitudinal arch in foot |
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Order of evolution
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Australopithicus aferensis
Australopithicus africanus Homo erectus Homo sapiens neanderthalensis Homo sapiens sapiens |
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In reponse to a disease or traumatic force, bone can be:
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Removed
Be deposited BOTH |
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Disease in hunter gatherer societies
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Parasitic, zoontic
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Good points about hunter gatherer societies
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Nomadic - left diseases behind
Well balanced diet |
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Disease in agricultural societies
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Epidemics, zoonoses, irragation, sanitation, nutritional, dental
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Pelvis sexual dimorphism
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Sacrum
Pubic bone shape Subpubic angle Great Schiatic notch Bone thickness Ventral arc Subpubic cavity Ischiopubic ramus |
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Skull sexual dimorphism
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Mastoid process
External occipital protuberance Supraorbital ridge Glabella Supraorbital margin Chin Orbits |
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Three main sites where the fusion of primary ossification occurs
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pelvis, vertebare, occiput
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Skeletal ageing areas
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Sternal clavicle
Sacrum Sphenooccipital synchrondrosis Pubic symphysis |
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Muscles of the pelvic floor
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Levator ani - pubococcygeous, illiococcygeous
Coccygeous |
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Anterior boundaries of the pelvis
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pubic bones
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Lateral boundaries of the pelvis
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Hip bones, obturator internus muscles
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Posterior boundaries of the pelvis
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Sacrum, coccyx, piriformis muscles
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Floor boundaries of the pelvis
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Pelvic diaphragm muscles
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Male reproductive ducts
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Epididymis, vas deferens, urethra
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Male reproductive accessory glands
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Bulbourethral gland, seminal vesicles, prostate
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Erectile tissue of the penis
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Corpus Spongiosum, corpora cavernosa
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Muscle which stops blood from leaving the penis during an erection
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Bulbospongiosus muscle
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Muscle which each "crus" in the penis is surrounded by and anchors to the pubic arch of the bony penis
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Ischiocavernosus muscle
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Muscle which wraps around all blood vessels in the testes and lifts up for thermoregulation
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Cremaster muscle and dartos muscle
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Veins surrounding the testicular artery which are involved in a heat exchange mechanism for regulation
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Pampiniform plexus
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Scrotum
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Made of superficial fascia, dartos muscle and skin
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Where sperm is produced
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In the seminiferous tubules
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The seminiferous tubules of each lobule converge to form a straight tubule that conveys sperm into the rete testes
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Tubulus rectus
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What are the rete testes
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A tubular network on the posterior side of the testes
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Sperm leaves the rete testes through the...
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Efferent ductules
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Leydig (interstitial cells)
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Lie in the soft connective tissue surrounding the seminiferous tubules. Produce and secrete into the surrounding tissue testosterone.
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Testicular arteries
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Branch from the abdominal aorta - supply the testes; inferior to the renal arteries
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Testicular veins
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Drain the testes; arise from the pampiniform plexus
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Seminal vesicles
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Secretes an alkaline fluid mixed with sperm
Reduces acidity and gives the sperm energy |
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Prostate gland
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Secretes highly acidic fluid which helps acivate sperm and keep it viable
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Bulbourethral gland
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Neutralises traces of urine in urethra by secreting an alkaline fluid
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Testicular temperature is controlled by...
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Pampiniform plexus
Scrotum Dartos and cremaster muscles Position of testes |
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Testes are made of..
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Seminiferous tubules and interstitial cells
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Seminiferous tubules divided by...
lined by... |
divided in lobules by connective tissue called septa
Lined by stratified epithelia |
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Septa contains..
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interstitial cells
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Stratified epithelia in the seminiferous tubules consists of
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developing sperm and suppoting cells (sustentacular cells)
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Tubulus rectus is lined by
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simple cuboidal or simple columnar
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Epididymis
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Where sperm undergo the maturation process
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Vas deferens joins with the duct of the seminal vesicles to form..
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the ejaculatory duct
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Three sections of the urethra
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Prostatic
Membranous Spongy (penile) |
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Ligaments supporting the uterus and ovaries
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Broad ligament
Suspensary ligament Uterosacral ligament Round ligament |
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Path of the sperm
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seminiferous tubules
tubulus rectus rete testes efferent ductules epididymis vas deferens ejeculatory duct urethra |
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Definition of ovulation
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Oocyte is release from the ovary into the peritoneal cavity
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Broad ligament consists of
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Mesosalpinx
Mesovarium Mesometrium It is the main supportive tissue |
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The ovarian ligament function
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Suspends the ovary to the uterus
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What is the name if the "structure" that extends over the ovary to ensure collection of the oocyte into the fallopian tube?
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Fimbriae
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Suspensary ligamen function
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Connects the ovary to the abdominal wall
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Names of the main uterine and ovarian arteries
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Ovarian artey
inferior mesenteric artery Internal iliac artery Uterine artery |
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Follicle cells
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Surround oocyte - if one layer
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Granulosa cells
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Surround oocyte - if multiple layers
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Primordial follicle
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One layer of squamous-like epithelial cells surround the oocyte
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Primary follicle
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Two or more layers of cuboidal or columnar type granulosa cells enclosing the oocyte
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Secondary follicle
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Fluid filled spaces appear between the granulosa cells and then combine to form an antrum
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Antrum
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Fluid filled cavity in a follicle
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Vesicle (Graafian) follicle
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Follicle bulges from the surface of the ovary; oocyte sits on a stalk of granulosa cells at one side of the antrum
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Corpus luteum
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After ovulation the follicle is transformed into a glandular structure which eventually degenerates
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Corpus albicans
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Degenarating corpus luteum
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Muscular peristalsis
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Toothpaste muscle movement
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Anteverted uterus
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flexes anteriorly
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Retroverted
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Uterus is frequently turned backward in older women
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Parts of the uterine wall
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Perimetrium - outermost serous layer
Myometrium - middle layer (smooth muscle) Endometrium - mucosal lining of the uterine cavity; simple columnar epithelium - underlain by lamina propria |
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Lamina propria
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Connective tissue which underlies mucosal membrane epithelia
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Mesometrium
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Ligament which supports the uterus inferiorly
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Uterosacral ligament
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Secure the uterus to the anterior body wall
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Haploid
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Gamete cells with only one chromosome (n)
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Diploid
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Cells with two chromosomes (2n)
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Gonadal ridge
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Embryotic structure which develops into gonads.
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Development of gonadal ridge is determined by:
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Testosteron and Mulllerian inhibitor hormone
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Embryotic ducts which develop into either male or female reproductive ducts
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Mesonephric (wolffian) duct
Paramesonephric (Mullerian) duct |
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Embryotic structure which develops into the kidney
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Metanephros
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Sex is determined by
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The presence or absence of a Y chromosome
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Y chromosome function in embryo
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Allows production of testosterone which affects the production of the wolfian duct
Lack of Y chromosome allows female features to form as there is no signal dictating the development of the gonadal ridge into testes therefore female develops no testosterone and ducts default into female system |
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Three steps of spermatogenesis
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Mitosis, Meiosis, Spermeogenesis
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Spermeogenesis
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the maturation of sperm
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Follicle development steps
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Primordial, primary, graafian
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Follicle stimulating hormone
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Stimulated by GnRH - stimulates ovarian follicle maturation and estrogen production and testosteron and inhibin in males
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Luteinizing hormone
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Stimulated by GnRH - triggers ovulation and stimulates ovarian production of estrogen and progesteron
Promotes testosterone production in males |
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Peptide hormones mechanism
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regulatory molecules calld G proteins and intracellular second messengers (mediate target cells reponse to the hormone)
Lipid insoluble - cannot cross the membrane |
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Steroid hormones
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Synthesised from cholesterol
Only gonadal Mechanism involves direct gene stimulation Lipid soluble |
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Levator ani
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Consists of iliococcygeous and pubococcygeous
Maintains position of the pelvic viscera Resists downward thrusts Lifts anal canal during defacation |
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Coccygeous
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Supports pelvic viscera
suports coccyx and pulls it forward after it has been reflected posteriorly by defacation and childbirth |
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Deep transverse perineus
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Supports pelvic organs
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Sphincter urethra
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Constricts urethra
Helps support pelvic organs |
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Ischiocavernosus
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Maintains erection of penis and clitoris
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Bulbospongiosus
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Empties male urethra
Helps maintain erection of penis and clitoris |
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What is anisogamy/heterogamy?
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the union of two types of sex cells that are dissimilar in sizem structure and function
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Azoospermia
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no sperm
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Oligospermia
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less than 20 million sperm per mL of ejaculate
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