Human Bio Ii

Front 1

Charles Darwin and the Theory of Evolution

Back 1

Early life…
 Farmer
 Dog breeder
 Pre-med student
-Later in life…
 The Beagle
 Evolution
 Change in populations over
time-- From one common ancestor
 Suggested the mechanism
driving/causing evolution
 Natural selection

Front 2

Heredity

Back 2

Fertilization-involves the fusion of an ovum and spermatazoon forming a zygote that has 46 chromosomes.

Front 3

Fertilaztion

Back 3

Step 1--Oocyte at Ovulation.

Step 2--Fertilization and Oocyte Activation.

Step 3--Pronucleus Formation Begins

Step 4--Spindle Formation and Cleavage Preparation.

Step 5--Fusion of Pronuclei and cleavage of Zygote begins.

Step 6--Cytokinesis Begins

Front 4

Gregor Mendel

Back 4

- Pea plants
-Self pollinating
-But what if you could
choose the parents?

Front 5

Genotype

Back 5

genetic makeup of an organism

Front 6

Phenotype

Back 6

physical expression of the
genotype

Front 7

Alleles

Back 7

-variations of the same gene (eg, eye color)

- Typically represented by a letter

Front 8

Homozygous = identical alleles
Dominant AA
Recessive aa

Back 8

Heterozygous = dissimilar alleles
Aa

Front 9

Mendel’s Laws of Genetics

Back 9

-Alleles account for variation in inherited traits

-For each gene, an organism inherits 2 alleles,
one allele from each parent
-Dominant allele determines phenotype

Front 10

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

Back 10

• Nucleotides
-Purine (2 rings)
- Adenine (A)
-Guanine (G)

- Pyrimidine (1 ring)
-Cytosine (C)
-Thymine (T)
-Paired with H bonds
- Phosphate and deoxyribose sugar backbone
• Template for RNA synthesis

Front 11

Nucleotides

Back 11

A: Adenine
T: Thymine
G: Guanine
C: Cytosine

Front 12

Gene

Back 12

Nucleotide sequence in DNA that provides
instructions for transcription of RNA,
which when translated into proteins, express a
trait

Front 13

RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)

Back 13

Single stranded
• Phosphate and ribose sugar backbone
 Nucleotides:
 Purine (2 rings)
 Adenine (A)
 Guanine (G)
 Pyrimidine (1 ring)
 Cytosine (C)
 Uracil (U)

- Paired with H bonds
• Template for protein synthesis

Front 14

Transcription

Back 14

• DNA is template for RNA
• Occurs in nucleus
• DNA helicase
• Unzips DNA strand
• RNA polymerase
– “reads” and adds complementary RNA nucleotides
• Product is pre-mRNA
– Introns (non-coding regions)
– Exons (coding regions)
• Fully functional mRNA moves into cytosol

Front 15

Translation

Back 15

• RNA is protein template
• Occurs in cytosol

• Houses amino acid pool
• mRNA (“the blueprint”) is protein template
• rRNA (“the architect”) `
• Reads codons
• tRNA (“the construction workers”)
• Pairs anticodons
• Carry amino acid

Front 16

Translation and the Role of RNA

Back 16

• The completed mRNA moves through a
nuclear pore, guided by the G cap.
• The mRNA interacts with a ribosome
which is 60% rRNA
• A tRNA with an
attached Amino Acid
(Methionine) will
act as a start codon

-Other tRNA with associated amino acids
will line up and form polypeptides through
peptide bonds
• After the amino acid
of a tRNA forms a
peptide bond with
neighboring amino acid,
the tRNA is released
• Translation ends
with a stop codon

Front 17

• DNA--> mRNA-->amino acids (tRNA)

-->polypeptides-->proteins
Nucleus --> Ribosome (rRNA) -->Golgi
• Genotype becoming Phenotype

Back 17

None

Front 18

Elongation

Back 18

amino acids are added one by one to the growing polypeptide chain

Front 19

Termination

Back 19

occurs as a protein releasing factor, not a tRNA molecule, recognizes the stop codon

Front 20

Cell Theory

Back 20

-Cells are the building blocks of all plants and animals.

-All new cells come from the division of pre-existing cells.

-Cells are the smallest structural units that carry out all vital physiological functions.

Front 21

Fertilized Ovum

Back 21

All cells are descendants of a single cell--the fertilized ovum

Front 22

Differentation

Back 22

Gradual specialization produces the specialized cells that form tissues of the body.

Front 23

Extracellular fluid surrounds the cell

Back 23

It is a watery medium

Front 24

Plasma Membrane

Back 24

Is a physical barrier that separates the inside of the cell from the surrounding extracellular fluid.

-It is a selectively permeable barrier that controls the entry of ions and nutrients, such as glucose.

-It is called the phospholipid bilayer because the different phospholipid molecules form two layers-hydrophilic tails at the membrane and hydrophobic tails on the inside

Front 25

Cholesterol

Back 25

Is an important component of plasma membranes with almost one cholesterol molecule for every phospholipid membrane

Front 26

Integral and Peripheral Protiens

Back 26

Integral are part of the membrane structure and peripheral are bound to the inner or outer surface of the membrane

Front 27

Glycocalyx

Back 27

Glycolipids-when carbs or lipids attatch to the membrane or

Glycoproteins--protein with some carbs attached to the membrane

-Allows cells to communicate

Front 28

Receptor Proteins

Back 28

Bind to specific extracellular molecules--they receive messages

Front 29

Enzymes

Back 29

In plasma membrane may be integral or peripheral proteins--they catalyze

Front 30

Ion Channels

Back 30

Are integral proteins containing a central pore that forms a passageway completely through the plasma membrane. The channel permits the passage of water and small solutes that cannot otherwise cross the lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane

Front 31

Cytoskeleton

Back 31

Functions as the cell's skeleton-it provides an internal protein framework that gives the cytoplasm strength and flexibility

Front 32

Microvilli

Back 32

-Are finger shaped extensions of the plasma membrane of some cells

-Digestive and Surface absorption-intestines and tongue

Front 33

Cilia

Back 33

-Found in the Respiratory system

-Long slender extensions of the plasma membrane

-Multiple Motile cilia propel fluids of solids across cell surface

Front 34

Flagella

Back 34

Much longer and beat in a wavelike fashion-sperm cells-mobile cells

Front 35

Microfilaments

Back 35

Small Protein Strands Provide strength and alter cell shape, bind to the cytoskeleton, to the plasma membrane and are involved in muscle contraction

Front 36

Intermediate Filaments

Back 36

Provide strength and move materials through cytoplasm

Front 37

Microtubules

Back 37

The largest component, they extend outward of the cell into the periphery from the centrosome and provide strength and move organelles

Front 38

Ribosomes

Back 38

Are responsible for protein synthesis

-Contains special proteins and rRNA

Front 39

Endoplasmic Reticulum ER

Back 39

is a network of intercellular membranes continuous with nuclear envelope

Front 40

Cisternae

Back 40

The ER forms hollow tubes, flattened sheets and chambers called cisternae

Front 41

Smooth ER

Back 41

-Lacks ribosomes and the Cisternae is tubular.

-Synthesize the phospholipids and cholesterol needed for the plasma membrane, ER, nuclearn envelope and Golgi

-Synthesize steroid hormones

-Synthesize and store glycerides in liver and fat cells

-Synthesize and store glycogen in skeletal and liver cells

-Detoxification

Front 42

RER

Back 42

-Functions as a combination of a workshop and shipping warehouse

-Where newly synthesized proteins are chemically modified and packaged for export to their next destination-the Golgio

Front 43

Polypeptide is synthesized on a ribosome, the growing chain enters the cisterna-->the polypeptide assumes its secondary structure-->the completed protein may become an enzyme or glycoprotein-->are packaged in transport vesicles-->which deliver the proteins enzymes etc to Golgi Apparatus

Back 43

None

Front 44

Golgi Apparatus

Back 44

-Membrane Renewal vesicles add to the surface of the plasma membrane--can change properties of plasma membrane which can profoundly alter the sensitivity and function of the cell

-Secretory Vesicles-contain products that will be discharged from the cell

-Enzymes for cytosol-Or Lysosomes are special vesicles that provide an isolated environment for potentially dangerous chemical reactions-contain digestive enzymes-Breakdown of organic compounds and damaged organelles or pathogens

Front 45

Mitochondrin

Back 45

Produces 95% of the ATP required by the cell

-Require Organic Molecules and O2

-Has a double membrane

-inner membrane has inner folds called cristae and the matrix is the liquid enclosed by the inner membrane

-A cell with a lot of mitochondria implies that it is a cell that needs energy-muscle cell

Front 46

Aerobic Metabolism

Back 46

-Or cellular respiration requires oxygen to produce ATP

-Glucose + Oxygen = Water + Carbon Dioxide + Energy (ATP and Heat)

-Release H20 and CO2

Front 47

Mitosis

Back 47

Cell division produces two daughter cells each containing a complete set of 46 chromosomes

Front 48

Interphase

Back 48

-Somatic cells spend most of their functional lives in Interphase

-During interphase in a cell in preparing to divide the chromosomes of the cell are duplicated and associated proteins are synthesized

Front 49

Phases

Back 49

In a cell preparing to divide interphase can be divided into G1, S and G2 phases

-G1 normal cell functions plus cell growth, organelle duplication, and protein synthesis 8 or more hours--1 chromatid per chromosome

-S phase- DNA replication, synthesis of histones and lasts 6-8 hours

-G2 phase-Last minute protein synthesis and centriole replication-2-5 hours--2 chromatids per chromosome

Front 50

S Phase-DNA Replication

Back 50

DNA helicase- enzymes unwind strands of DNA.

DNA polymerase- adds nucleotides to
make continuous copy of upper DNA
strand.

-DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to
make complementary copy of lower DNA
strand.

Front 51

Prophase

Back 51

Begins when chromosomes coil so tightly that they become visible as individual structures

-They are replicated and are connected at a region called the centromere

-nuclear membrane disintegrates

-Spindles form

Front 52

Metaphase

Back 52

• Chromosomes line up on metaphase plate,
centromeres on spindle fibers
– “equator” of cell

Front 53

Anaphase

Back 53

• Spindle fibers contract
– Pulls sister chromatids apart
– Chromatids move to opposite poles of cell

Front 54

Telophase

Back 54

• Spindle fibers disappear
• Nuclear membrane reforms
• Chromosomes de-condense

Front 55

Cytokinesis

Back 55

• cleavage fully forms, splitting cell into 2
identical daughter cells