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126 Cards in this Set

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developmental issues
nature and nurture
-involves the debate whether development is primarily influenced by biology or environment

continuity-discontinuity
-the extent to which development involves gradual, cumulative change or distinct change

stability vs change
-the degree to which we remain consistent in our development
-are we an older rendition of our early experience or do we develop into someone quite different from who we were at an earlier point in development?
-considers the extent to which early experiences (especially in infancy) or later experience are the key determinants of a person's development
Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory
5 environmental systems: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macro-system, and chronosystem

microsystem: setting in which the individual lives , most direct interaction with social agents (family, peers, school, neighborhood

mesosystem: relationship beetween microsystems (family experiences to school experiences, school experiences to religious experiences, family experiences to peer experiences)

exosystem: links between social setting in which the individual does not have an active role (mas smedia, friends of family, legal services)

macrosystem: culture in which individuals live (attitudes and ideologies of the culture)

chronosystem: patterning of environmental events and transitions over the life course, sociohistorical conditions (divorice, women to pursue career)
heredity-evironment interaction
-heredity and environment operate together to produce personal characteristics

-emerging view: genes give people a propensity for a particular developmental trajectory that is ultimately realized through environmental circumstances (intelligence, weight, temperament, height, ability to read)
3 stages of prenatal development
-germinal period (0-2weeks)
blastocyst
trophoblast
implantation

-embryonic period (2 to 8-10 weeks)
blastocyst attaches to uterine wall: embryo
amnion
umbilical cord
placenta
organogenesis

-fetal period (10 weeks to 38-42 weeks)
2 months to birth >viability (chance of life outside womb) > currently 23-24 weeks
reproductive challenges
-infertility
the inability to conceive a child after 12 months of attempting

-in vitro fertilization (IVF)
egg and sperm are combined in a laboratory & fertilized egg is transferred to woman's uterus
important embryonic developments
week 3: neural tube

21 days: eyes
24 days: heart cells

week 4: urogenital, arm and leg buds, heart chambers, blood vessels

week 5-8: arms and legs, face, intestinal tract
week 8: 1/30 ounce, 1 inch long
the brain
-100 billion neurons (nerve cells) at birth
-increased in connectivity and functioning occur from the third trimester to age 2
-neural tube: 18-24 days postconception
(anencephaly, spina bifida)
prenatal screening & diagnostic tests
can determine risk of genetic problems from family history (birth defects, genetic disorders, infant death) prior to birth of a child

Maternal blood screen (AFP)- increased levels AFP may be associated with NTD. low levels of AFP associated with downs syndrome

ultrasound- detect micronecephayly (visual representation of fetus inner structure)

amnio chromosomal- metabolic abnormalities

fetal MRI

Chorionic villus sampling
genetic problems
chromosomal abnormalities vs gene-linked abnormalities
abnormalities in the number of chromosomes or in the structure of the chromosomes (normally have 46 chromosomes, 23 pairs)
chromosomal abnormalities
down syndrome: extra chromosome causes mild-severe retardation and physical abnormalities
treatment: surgery, early intervention, special learning programs, stimulation

klinefelter syndrome (XXY): an extra X chromosome causes physical abnormalities
treatment: hormone therapy can be effective

fragile X syndrome: abnormality in X chromosome can cause mental retardation, learning disabilities, short attention span (more common in males than females)
treatment: special education, speech and language therapy

turner syndrome (XO): missing X chromosome in females can cause mental retardation and sexual underdevelopment
treatment: hormone therapy in childhood and puberty

XYY syndrome (males): extra Y chromosome can cause above-avereage height
no treatment required
gene-linked abnormalities
cystic fibrosis: glandular dysfunction that interferes with mucus production, breathing and digestion are hampered resulting in a shortened lifespan
treatment: physical and oxygen therapy, synthetic enzymes and antibiotics

diabetes: body does not produce enough insulin, which causes abnormal metabolism of sugar
treatment: early onset can be fatal unless treated with insulin

hemophilia: delayed blood clotting causes internal and external bleeding
treatment: blood transfusion/injections can reduce or prevent damage due to internal bleeding

huntington disease: central nervous system deteriorates, producing problems in muscle coordinating & mental deterioration
treatment: does not appear until 35+ yrs old, death likely 10-20 years after symptoms

PKU: metabolic disorder
special diet can result in average intelligence and normal lifespan

sickle-cell anemia: blood disorder that limits the body's oxygen supply, can cause joint swelling as well as heart&kidney failure
treatment: penicillin, medication for pain, antibiotics

spina bifida: neural tube disorder cause brain and spine abnormalities
treatment: corrective surgery at birth, orthopedic devices
hazards to prenatal development
teratogen: any agent that can negatively alter structure, function, cognitive and behavioral outcomes

drugs
-differential resilience, some drugs are safe, others cause birth defects
-prescription: antibiotics, some antidepressants, some hormones, accutane
-nonprescription: aspirin, diet pills

psychoactive drugs
-drugs that act on the nervous system to alter states of consciousness, modify perceptions, and change moods
-includes caffeine, alcohol, nicotine
-caffine: small risk of miscarriage and low birth weight at >150 mg daily. increased risk of fetal death > 300mg daily
-alcohol: fetal alcohol syndrome: facial deformities; defective limbs, face, heart;deficits in intellectual disability; ADHD, emotional/behavioral/social issues

incompatible blood types
-can cause mother's immune system to produce antibodies that will attack the fetus

environmental hazards
-environmental hazards: radiation, environmental pollutants and toxic waste
-maternal diseases: STD, rubella, diabetes

maternal factors
-maternal diet and nutrition
-maternal age
-emotional states and stress

paternal factors
-exposure to teratogens
-paternal age


severity of damage to the unborn depends on:
dose, genetic susceptibility, time of exposure

critical period: a fixed time period during which certain experiences or events can have a long-lasting effect on development

most serious damage from teratogens in first 2-8 weeks (first structural defect then functional)
prenatal care
critical intervention

prenatal care typical includes:
-screening for manageable conditions and treatable diseases
-medical care
-educational, social, nutritional services
transition from fetus to newborn
birth process is stressful for baby
-anoxia: a condition in which te fetus has an insufficient supply of oxygen
-baby secretes adrenaline and noradrenalin

neonatal health and responsiveness:
-apgar scale: assessed at 1 minute and 5 mintes after birth
-health rate, body color, muscle tone, respiratory effort, and reflex irritability
-10 is highest, 3 or below life threatening/emergency
neonatal measures
brazelton neonatal behavioral assessment scale:
-24-36 hrs after birth
-assesses neurological development, reflexes, and reactions to people and objects
-low scare indicate brain damage/other difficulties

NNNS:
-assesses the "at-risk" infant
infant mortality
-US ranks 26th in infant mortality rate in developed countries
-percentage of LBW rates AND mortality in infants is higher in African American than caucasion women
-3 leading causes of infant deaths;
congenital malformations, LBW/perterm, SIDS
reflexes
sucking
rooting
moro (startle)
grasping
babinski (toe curling)
hospice as a model of care
-considered to be the model for quality, compassionate care for end of life
-team-oriented approach to expert edical care, ppain management, and emotional/spiritual support
focus of hospice care
-caring, not curing
-each of us has the right to die pain-free and with dignity, our loved ones get the support to allow us to do so
-care provided at person's home or hospice centers, nursing homes, hospitcals
-available to people of any age/religion, race, or illness
5 common regrets of dying
-had the courage to live a life true to myself, not the life others expected of me
-didnt work so hard
-had the courage to express my feelings
-stayed in touch with my friends
-let myself be happier
alzheimer's disease
-slowly degenerative brain disease marked by changes in behavior and personality. irreverse decline in intellectual abilities, thinking, memory, judgement (cognitive skills)
-leading cause of dementia (loss of cognitive and intellectual function without impairment of perception or consciousness
-vulnerable brain regions incude amygdala, hippocampus, areas around the hippocampus
-approx 4.5 million people in U.S.
-10% 65+ yrs old
-50% 85+ yrs old
-number of people double every 5 years after age 65
-no known cure
-greatest risk factor is age
causes of dementia
-Alzheimer's disease= leading cause of dementia
-AD accounts for atleast 56% of reported ementia cases, possibly as high as 75%

-
statistics of AD
-2010- AD was 8th leading cause of death in US
-100,000 people die each year from AD
-250,00 new cases every year
-14 million Americans will have AD by 2050 unless a cure/prevention is found
-7/10 people with AD live at home
-in 2000, 40% of all nursing home admission 65+ had AD or dementia
race & gender factor of AD
-Affects men and women equally
-higher prevalence,incidence,cumulative risk of African-American
-vascular disease may be particularly powerful factor in the prevalence of AD among african americans
-65% africans medicare beneficiaries have hypertension compared to 51% whites
higher risk of stroke
60% higher risk of type 2 diabetes
pathology of AD
Amyloid Plaques
-Clumps of protein fragments that accumulate outside of cells
-Tied bundles of protein that impair the functioning of neurons

neurofibrillary tangles
-clumps of altered proteins inside cells
-tau deposits accumulate in the brain's blood vessels
early detection of alzheimer's disease
-brain scans (MRI), PET scan, EEG scan can detect brain changes typical of early AD before symptoms develop
-certain spinal fluids give early signals of Alzheimer's disease
-urine test
-autopsy is the only definitive diagnosis
treatment for AD
cholinesterase inhibitors
-prevent the breakdown of acetylcholine
-currently 4 drugs approved by FDA to treat AD
-50% of those with AD on meds show modest&temporary improvement in cognitive functioning

vitamin E
-may inhibit molecular activity contributing to brain cell damage (oxidative stress)

family counseling and support group

physical

other medication
-may be prescribed to treat symptoms as agitation, anxiety, depression, and poor sleep
stereotypes and ageism
-ageism is a negative form of prejudice
-older members of action groups have gained political clout and lobbying power
-social issues associated with aging include:
social security/economic stability; medicare& health care costs
-exponentially growing percentage of pop over age 65
working & retirement
-78 million baby boomers reach retirement age by 2010, but federal laws will allow many to continue working
- 80% expect to work during retirement years
-cognitive ability best predictor of job performances
-work provides older works:
productive activity, social interactions, a positive identity
sources of income for older americans
40% social security
21% asset income
19% public&private pensions
17% earnings from work
3% other sources
labor force participation rates of men age 55+
age 55-51 = 90%
70+ = 20%
life expectancy
the number of years that will probably be lived by the average individual born in a particular year

human lifespan has not changed throughout history

life expectancy in the US has increased to an average of 78 years due to:
-medical advances
-better nutrition
-more exercise
-healthier lifestyle

life expectancy in the US from african americans is average of 70 years
gender differences in longevity
-today, females is 80, males is 74
-by the time adults are 75 years old, more than 61% of population is female
-differences due to health attitudes, habits, lifestyle, and occupations
men are more likely than women to die from
-respiratory cancer and coronary heart disease
-motor vehicle accidents
-suicide
-cirrhosis of the liver and emphysema
sex differences in life expectancy
-may be narrowing as more women are exposed to work place stress
-influenced by biological factors
females outlive males in virtually all species
life span
the maximum life span of human beings is approximately 120 years of age
centenarians
-fasting growing segment of population
-77,000 in 2000 compared to 15,000 in 1980. expected to be 834,000 in 2050:
85% women
men have better physical and cognitive function
geographic clustering

at the gym
what can you do to live longer?
-genes
-caloric restrictions
-antioxidants
-hormone supplements: DHEA and HGH
-dietary supplements
-exercise, balanced diet, don't smoke, regular medical check ups
living arrangements of late adulthood
-95% of older adults live in the community
-2/3 live with familiar members, 1/3 alone
-half of older women 75 years and older live alone
-only 5% adults over 65 live in institutions, but the older they are, the more likely
-23% of adults 85 years and over live in institutions
grandparents as caregivers
2.5 million grandparents in US raising children
-more than 4.5 million children under age 18 being cared for by grandparents

reasons: parental substance abuse, child abuse, neglect or abandonment to unemployment, divorce, AIDS and death

challenges
-fixed income, declining health, family strains, locating services and resources
late adulthood age-related changes
physical appearance, sensory changes, physical changes, cognitive changes, language
decline immune system
decline in sensory

episodic memory- retention of imofrmation abot the where and when of life's happenings

-semantic memory= expertise

explicit memory- facts consciously can state
implicit memory- memory without conscious recollection (doesnt decline as much)

prospective memory- doing something in the future

source memory- where one learned something

deicision making is good
changes in the brain
-brain shrinks 5%-10% between ages 20-90
-some areas of the brain shrink more than others
-shrinking of prefrontal cortex is linked to decrease in working memory in older adults
-a general slowing of function in the brain and spinal cord begins in middle adulthood
physical changes in late adulthood
-immune system declines in functioning with aging with decrease of T cells, exercise helps
-influenza vaccine is important
-people get shorter due to bone loss
(men: 1.25 inches from age 30-70
women: 2 inches from 25-75 )
-weight bearing exercise/training help reduce muscle mass loss and changes in body appearance
sensory changes
sensory changes in late adulthood involves:
-vision and hearing (hearing aids, night vision, taste and smell, touch and pain)
-degenerative changes in the retina result in decreased light entering it
-eye diseases: cataracts, glaucoma, macular degeneration
-hearing impairments
-decreased sensitivity in pain
causes of death in late adulthood
6 leading causes of deaths in older adults are:
-heart disease
-cancer
-cerebrovascular disease (stroke)
-chronic lung disease
-pneumonia or influenza
-diabetes
nearly 75% die from the first 3 of the causes
cognitive changes in late adulthood
memory changes with age, but areas tend to be multidirectional
-not all aspects of memory decline with age
-decline occurs mainly in older adults' episodic and work memory, not in semantic or implicit memory
-decline in perceptual speed is linked to memory decline
statistics of late adulthood
% 65+ years old moderate or servere memory impairment
-34% males 85+
31% females 85+

most prevalent chronic condition age 65+ arthritis
disability and aging: down syndrome
shortened life expectancy: avg 55 yrs
cognitive function:
-age related decline 10-20 years earlier than typical
-most over age 40 show some neuropathological changes characteristics of AD
-only some develop dementia
alzheimer's and DS
individuals with MR other than DS not at increased risk
genetic material on chromosome 21 responsible for age-related brain changes?
-gene which produces APP is located at C 21
-Amyloid is protein associated with AD
cerebral palsy and aging
-not much research
-impact of aging varies due to variety of disabilities
-life expectancy might be lower
-physical challenges may intensify with age (increased spasticity, fatigue, loss of strength, declining mobility)
cerebral palsy and aging : physical stresses
-effects of spasticity and lack of mobility
-increased joint and muscle pain
-declining mobility due to bone and muscle mass loss
-abnormal stress on bones and muscles
-bowel and bladder problem
-pressure sores and skin breakdown
-sometimes breathing problems
-difficulties with eating and swallowing
CP and aging: social stress
-more energy for day to day tasks, leaving less for social activities
-decreased opportunity for social and leisure activities
-no longer have family members as support (ex. help communicate in appointments)
autism and aging
lack research on adults
-first individual diagnosed with autism in 1940s

BU research (Seltzer) shows changes
-more impaired in reciprocal social interactions
-fewer repetitive and unusual behaviors
-all individuals w/ disabilities are more prone to accidents (poor judgement, institutional living)
spinal cord injury and aging
effects of immobility: osteoporosis, pressure sores, weight gain, GI
-cardiovascular disease (200% higher)
-rate of hypertension 2x
-diabetes 4x more common in men with spinal cord injury
UTI
overuse injuries
middle adulthood mortality rates
-chronic diseases now the main cause of death
-3 leading causes of death
1.) heart disease
2.) cancer
3.) cerebrovascular disease
-men experience higher mortality rates tan women for all of the leading causes of deaths
health impact of overweight and obesity
increased risk for:
high blood pressure
-high blood cholesterol
-type 2 diabetes
-heart disease and stroke
-gall bladder disease
-arthritis
-sleep disturbance
-some types of cancers
obesity trends among US adults between 1985 - 2008
definition: having a very high amount of body fat in relation tip lean body mass, or BMI of 30 or high

Obesity increasing, overweight decreasing
obesity trends
during past 20 years:
-dramatic increase in obesity in US
-in 1985 only a few states participated in CDC's BRFSS and provided obesity data
-in 1990, 4 states had obesity prevalence rates of 15-19% and no states had rates at or above 20%

1995-2000: from n=50 to n=28
-1995= obseity prevalence in eat of 50 states was less than 20%
-2000, 28 states had obesity prevalence rates less than 20%

in 2005: n=4
-only 4 states had obesity prevalence rates less than 20%
-17 states had prevalence rates equal to or greater than 25%, with 3 having prevalence rates equal to or greater than 30% (louisiana, mississippi, west virginia)
prevalence of obesity among men aged 20+
in 1900s vs 2000s

prevalence of obesity among women aged 20+
in 1900s vs 2000s
men
highest in 1900s: mexican american
2000: blacks

females
highest in 1900s: blacks
highest 2000s: blacks
diabetes
-17 million people have diabetes
-6th leading cause of death in america
-type 2 affects 90-95% people with diabetes & most often appears at age 40
-blacks are 2x likely and american idians&alaska natives are 2.6x more likely to have diabetes relative to whites
-diagnosed diabetes increased 49% from 1990-2000. more recent study says as high as 61%
complications of diabetes
-eye disease & blindness
-kidney disease
-amputations
-cardiovascular disease
-pregnancy complications
-flu/pneumonia related deaths
primary prevention of diabetes
-twin epidemics of diabetes and obsesity continue
-from 1991 to 2001, CDC study found 61% increase in Americans, and a 74% increase in obesity, reflecting strong correlation between obesity & development of diabetes

-a healthy diet & modest physical activity can help reduce risk for EVER developing type 2 diabetes
modifiable lifestyle factors to reduce risk for chronic disease and promote health and well being
-physical activity
-healthy diet
-stop smoking
-limit alcohol intake
-weight control
work in midlife
-US approximately 80% of individuals aged 40-59 are employed
-age 51-59: slightly less than 25% do not work
-an important issue in midlife is choice and power: can an individual continue to do the type of work they want to do
midlife crises
-levinson views midlife as a crisis= a time when the adult is suspended between the past and future, trying to cope with this gap that threatens lifes continuity
-middle-aged adults have:
a greater sense of control in their work
a greater sense of environmental mastery
more autonomy and more power
greater financial security
meaning in life
-Victor Frankl's book "Man's search for meaning" emphasized each person's uniqueness and the finiteness of life
-spiritual,freedom, and responsibility
-many individuals in middle age begin to ask existential questions:
why they exist,
what they want from life,
what is the meaning of their life
Young adulthood cognitive stages
piaget's view
realistic vs pragmatic thinking
reflective and relativistic thinking
piaget's view
-more quantitatively advances in their thinking (more knowledge than adolescents)
-formal operational stage and idealistic thinking
-increase knowledge in a specific area

realistic vs pragmatic
-face constraints of reality,which work promotes, idealism decreases

reflective vs relativistic
-move away from absolute thinking and become aware of diverse opinions/multiple perspectives
what is an adult?
permanent full time job
economic independence
for more than 70% of college students adult means:
-accepting responsibility for consequences of actions
-deciding own beliefs and values
-establishing a relationship with parents as an equal adult
2 stage of young adulthood
1: 18-25 yrs
2: 25-35 yrs
education
-US becoming a more educated country
-canada has the largest % of 18-21 yr olds attending college, followed by Belgium, France, US
-more than 1 out of 5 college student is a returning student
college students: 2000-present
-more stress
-more depressed than in the past
-pervasive concerns
-increased attendance at community colleges
-more returning students
college students and stress
-sources of stress
-what makes college students happy
1.
academic (exams, grades, competition)
personal (relationships,parental conflicts)
economic (balancing work and school)
psychological (emotional situations)

2. friend when you want them, solitude when you need it
the peak and slowdown in physical performance
-peak physical performance and health during 20s
-few chronic health problems
-hidden danger of peak performance and health
-muscle tone and strength begin to decline around age of 30
relevant factors for eating disorders
body dissatisfaction
media/cultural influences
drive for thinness
traditional dieting
drive for thinness
-belief that thinness = success, attractiveness, beauty, self-control
-more than 70% of americans were on a weight loss diet in 2006
-55% of normal weight 11-13 yrs old female sees themselves as fat
-more than 10% of girls age 9-14 and 3% boys binge eat or purge at least once a week
body dissatisfaction
-average women in US is 5'4, weigh 144, wear size 12
-average american model is 5'11, weigh 117, represent 2% population
-medica images represent 5% of female population (95% do not match the cultural ideal)
prevalence rates of eating disorders
anorexia nervosa in women: 0.5-3.7%

bulimia nervosa women: 1.1-4.2%

binge eating disorder in women: 2-5%

BED in overweight women in weight loss treatment: 30%

eating disorders in men: 5-7%
impact of eating disorders on development
health
nutrition/eating patterns
mental health
body image disturbance
fertility
self-esteem
intimacy
relationships
identity
coping strategies
obesity in early adulthood
-begins or continues to be a serious health problem
-more than 60% in US are overweight
-overweight BMI = 25-30 m/kg^2

related factors
-heredity
-leptin (protein affecting food intake)
-metabolism
-environment factors
-ethnicity and race
-gender
ethnicity and gender young adulthood
-African American and latino women in their 20s and 30s become obese faster than whites
-latino men become obese faster than white and african american men

potential explanations:
-biological vulnerability
-socioeconomic forces
-environment

-women with incomes near poverty are about 1.5x more likely to be obese than women of higher SES

males:
67.6% whites are obese/overweight
58.6% of blacks
71.9% hispanics

females:
58.1% whites
77.2% blacks
69.5 hispanic
environmental factors
-strong evidence of environment's influence on weight in last 100 years
-greater availability of food (particularly food high in fat)
-energy saving devices
-declining physical activity

obesity 6x more prevalent among women with low income

americans are more obese than europeans
exercise
most effective weight loss program includes exercise components

benefits:
-burns calories
-continues to elevate a person's metabolic rate for several hours after the exercise
-lowers a person's set point for weight
-both MODERATE and INTENSE activites produce significant physical and psychological gains
-helps prevent heart disease, osteoporosis, improves self-concept and reduces anxiety and depression
binge drinking
2007= 41% college students
2011= 36% college students

problems reported by almost half of binge drinkers:
-missing class
-troubles with police
-physical injuries
-having unprotected sex

by mid 20s, may have reduced use of alcohol and drugs
functions of friendships
companionship
intimacy
affection
support
source of self-esteem
buffer from stress
source of emotional support
intimacy
erikson:
intimacy should come after individuals are well on their way to establishing stable and successful identities
intimacy means finding oneself yet losing oneself in another

intimacy vs isolation: if intimacy is not developed in early adulthood, the individual may be left with isolation

intimacy vs independence: an intrucate balance
6 stages of family life cycle
1. leaving home allows youth to launch into adulthood
2. marriage is the uniting of 2 entire family systems
3. becoming parents creates new problems and requires lots of adjustments
4. parenting can be challenging when adolescents are seeking autonomy and identity
5. the family at midlife discovers new freedoms
6. family in later life is a time of adaption
single adults
-dramatic rise in number of single adults
-single/unmarried parenthood more common
-age 30:
increasing pressure to settle down and get married,
make conscious decision to marry or remain single
-cohabiting opposite sex couples increase
death rate among persons 15-24 years old

death rate among persons 25-44 years old
47%- unintentional injuries
16%- homicides
17%- all other causes
3%-heart disease

all other causes: 28%
unintentional injuries: 26%
cancer: 14%
history of autism
-leo kanner identified in 1943
children from well-educated families,
described difficulties mothers had DSMin their relationship with their son or daughter,
led to "refrigerator mother"
-hans asperger identified similar set of cihldren
DSM-5 criteria
-all autism spectrum disorder
-impairments in social communication & social interaction:
social-emotional reciprocity,
nonverbal communicative behaviors used for social interaction,
impairments in developing, maintaining, understanding relationships

restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities (need 2):
-stereotyped or repetitive motor movements, use of objects, or speech
-insistence of sameness, adherence to routines, ritualized patterns of verbal or nonverbal behavior
-restricted, fixated interests that are abnormal in intensity or focus
-hyper or hypo reactivity to sensory input or unusal sensory interests

-present in early childhood
-limit or impair everyday functioning
-severity rating (1= requiring support, 3= requiring substantial support)
causes of autism
genetics
-if one identical twin has autism, 60% case the other twin has PDD. recurrence in siblings is 1/5 (19%)
-rate higher among younger brothers (1/4) than among younger sisters (1/9)
-multiple genes interacting

brain structure and chemistry:
limbic system
amygdala
hyppocampus
cerebellum
cerebral cortex
seratonin
mirror neurons
prenatal insults (teratogens)
maternal rubella
thalidomide exposure
environment toxins (brick township, NJ)
other neurological conditions (anoxia at birth)
immunizations (MMR, thimerisol)
treatments for autism
-early intervention
-education and behavioral training have should most consistent positive effects
-medications
-ABA (lovaas)
autism red flags
-no babbling by 12 months of age
-no use of gestures by 12 months of age
-does not say single words by 16 months
-doesn't say 2 word phrases by 24 months
-loses language or social skills
-doesn't respond to name
-has odd movement patterns
-doesn't play with toys
-doesn't smile when smiled at
-poor eye contact
-gets stuck on things over and over and an't move on
-seems to be in his/her own world
-not interested in other children
adolescence aspects of identity
desired career path
religious beliefs
social and intimate relationships
sexual and gender identity
cultural or ethnic identity
personality traits
physical body image

occurs over time, throughout adolescence
adolescence emotional development
-increased interest in self-portrayal
-search for an identity
-emotional swings

-girls self esteem declines due to puberty, boys increase
-identity confusion is gap between the security of childhood and autonomy of adulthood
adolescent egocentrism
imaginary audience- belief that others are as interested in them as they themselves are

personal fable- invincibility
adolescence piaget's theory
-adolescent thought is at the formal operational stage
-thought is more abstract
-hypothetical-deductive reasoning
-critical thinking
adolescent dilemmas
-decision making
-pressure to conform
-more independence vs more attention
-maturity in cognitive abilities
-discrepancy in ideal vs real
peer groups in adolescent
-cliques
-harry stack sullivan on friendships
-dating
developing a sexual identity
-puberty: a period of rapid physical maturation involving hormonal and bodily changes that occur primarily during early adolescence
most noticeable physical changes in adolescence

adolescent sexuality is initiated by
1.
-pubic hair growth
-facial and chest hair growth in males
-breast growth in females
-increased height and weight
-sexual maturity

2.
males: first ejaculation, voice change, penis elongation, and testes development
females: highly irregular menstrual cycles, rounding of breasts, widening of hips
Early onset of puberty can create risks for females
-depression
-eating disorders
-use of alcohol, drugs, and/or tobacco
-earlier dating and sexual involvement with males
-possible lower educational attainment

pubertal changes have a strong effect on the adolescent's body imagine, dating interest, and sexual behavior
adolescent sexuality
-time of exploration, experimentation, and sexual fantasies
-bridge between the asexual child and sexual adulthood- reaction of each society may vary
-television/media contribute to the sexual culture
-developing a sexual identity involves:
sexual behavior,
indication of sexual orientation
-
risk factors for sexual problems
-probability of sexual intercourse increases steadily with age
-young adolescents (<age 16):
least effective users of contraception,
at higher risk for unintended pregnancy and STDs
-early sexuality is linked with excessive drinking and drug use
sexually transmitted diseases
3 million american teens
gonorrhea
HIV/AIDS
Chlamydia
contraceptive use
2 kinds of risks that youth encounter:
-unintended/unwanted pregnancy
-sexually transmitted diseases

a sexually active adolescent who does not use contraception has a 90% chance of pregnancy within a year
consequences of adolescent pregnancy
-adolescent pregnancy creates health risks for both the offspring and the mother
-infants born to teens more likely to have:
low birth weights,
neurological problems,
childhood illness
-often drop out of school
-often have a low SES
drug use in adolescence
US has highest rate of adolescent drug use of any industrialized nation

alcohol most widely used

use of drugs among US secondary school students declined in the 1980s, but began to increase in the 1990s

drugs used by teens:
inhalants, marijuana, hallucinogens, amphetamines
leading cause of deaths/disability in adolescence
#1- accidents- motor vehicle
#2- homocide
#3- suicide (tripled since 1950)d

-accidents: mostly automobiles due to risky driving habits and driving under the influence of alcohol/drugs
-traumatic brain injury: acquired disability in childhood and adolescence
-spinal cord injury: young men 16-24
-suicide: accounts for 6% of deaths in 10-14 age, 12% deaths in 15-19 age
-homicide: especially high among african american male adolescents, who are 3x more likely to be killed by guns than natural cause
depression
-more likely to occur in adolescence than i nchildhood
-girls have high rate of depression
-risk factors:
family
poor peer relations
experiencing difficult changes
suicide in adolescents
-males and females: most prevalent suicide attempt in american indian/alaska native
-white males have higher rate of suicide
middle to late childhood
elementary school- what are important areas of development
-motor
gross motor(smoother, more coordinated)
fine motor (improved, fine-tuned)
hands used as tools (hammering, pasting, tying shoes, and fastening clothes)
10-12 years (manipulative skills similar to adults)

-social and emotional development
increased ability to understand complex emotions,
increased understanding of multiple emotions in single situation,
increased ability to suppress or conceal negative emotional reactions,
use of self-initiated strategies for redirecting feelings

-social cognition
involves thoughts about social matters
peer relations
children need to know what scripts to follow to get other children to be their friends
children go through 5 steps in processing information about their social world
-encode social cues
-interpret social cues
-search for response
-select an optimal response
-enact appropriate response
health concerns of middle/late childhood
-most common cause of severe injury and death: motor vehicle accidents
-other serious injuries skateboards, rollerkskates, and other sports
-safety helmets, protective eye, shields, padding
cancer in middle/late childhood
-cancer is the 2nd leading cause of deaths in children 5-14 years old
-current 1 in every 330 children in the US develops cancer before the age of 19
-incidence is increasing
-mainly those of the white blood cells, brain, bone, lymph system, muscles, kidney, and nervous system
types of cancer in children
39%- leukemia
15%- brain
12%- other
overweight in children

overweight in adolescents
-17% of children 6-9 are overweight
- tripled for children and adolescents in last 20 years

-70% chance of overweight in adulthood
-risk of heart disease and high cholesterol
-type 2 diabetes increased dramatically
-some forms of cancer
-social consequences
some causes of overweight in children
exercise in childhood
-school lunches

-62% of children aged 9-13 do not participate in any organized physical activity in non-school hours
- 23% do not engage in any free-time physical activity
-43% of adolescents watch more than 2 hours of tv each day
transition to elementary school
-new role as a student
-new relationships, new reference groups, and new standards for judging themselves
-emerging concerns: new evidence that early schooling proceeds mainly on the basis of negative feedback
-vygotsky: ZPD with scaffolding
(parents time interactions so that infants experience turn-taking with parents)
upper limit: level with assistance of an instructor
lower limit: child can work alone
who are children with disabilities
-aprrox 10% of all children in US receive special education
-of children wiht disabilities:
50% have learning disability
21% have speech/language impairments
12% have intellectual disability
9% have serious emotional disturbance

3 times as many boys as girls are classified as having a learning disability
learning disabilities
children with a learning disability:
-are of normal intelligence or above
-have difficulties in at least one academic are and usually several
-adhd is considered a learning disability in the school context

inclusion: educating children w disability in regular classroom
mainstream: education children with disability partially in special education class and partiall in regular classroom
piaget on early childhood
a preeschooler's world is creative, free, and franciful

piaget's preoperational stage: 2-7yrs:
-thinking=acting
-can mentally rehearse physical acts but thinking is flawed

first substage of preoperational thought:
symbolic functions: scribbled drawings rep. real objects

child at age 2-4 still limited by:
egocentrism and animism
self-talk in early childhood
vygotsky
-language and thought develop independently then merge
- child uses language to communicate with others before she/he can focus on inward thoughts
-transition to internal speech: age 3-7

piaget
-self-talk is egocentric and reflects immaturity
parenting styles
authoritative:
most effective type, appears to transcend boundaries of ethnicity, SES, family structure

demanding, controlling, accepting, responsive: authoritative

demanding, controlling, rejecting, unresponsive: authoritarian

undemanding, uncontrolling, accepting, responsive: indulgent

undemanding, uncontrolling, rejecting, nresponsive: neglectful
preterm infants
BW < 2500 gm (5.5 lbs)
-birth < 37 weeks gestation
400,000 births/year in US but rising
-about 50% LBW and perterm children receive some type of special education services
preterm are needs
warmth- usually through incubator
kangaroo care

environmental modulation
most prefer darkness; older babies may tolerate more light

containment/comfort/positioning
secure, but not straight jacket

nurturing/social interaction
based on baby's maturity - touch interaction before visual

sucking
helps them self-console/organize
-