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107 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Endocrine
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– released into bloodstream to act on target tissues
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hormonal communication vs. neural communication
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Hormones act in a gradual fashion
A hormone may have multiple effects and one behavior can be affected by several hormones Hormones often have pulsatile secretion – in bursts Some hormones are controlled by circadian clocks |
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Protein hormones act more rapidly than steroids
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Protein and amine hormones bind to specific receptors on the surface of a cell release a second messenger in the cell
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Steroid hormones act more slowly
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Steroid hormones pass through the cell membrane and bind to receptors inside the cell
The steroid-receptor complex binds to DNA and acts as a transcription factor – controlling gene expression |
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Tropic hormones
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- pituitary hormones that affect other endocrine glands
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Releasing hormones
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from hypothalamus control pituitary’s release of tropic hormones
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Endocrine Feedback Loops
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Tropic hormones - pituitary hormones that affect other endocrine glands
Releasing hormones from hypothalamus control pituitary’s release of tropic hormones |
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Posterior pituitary secretes two hormones
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Vasopressin, or antidiuretic hormone (ADH) – increases blood pressure and inhibits urine formation
Oxytocin – Maternal behaviors Autism? |
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Two Hormones are Produced in the Hypothalamus for Posterior Pituitary Secretion
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The hypothalamus makes two additional hormones: OT (oxytocin) and ADH (antidiuretic hormone). The hypothalamus does NOT secrete these hormones, however. Instead, the neurons that make the hormones transport the hormones to their axonal terminals. These axonal terminals are located in the posterior pituitary.
adh: supraoptic nucleus ot:paraventriucular nucleus |
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Hypothalamus
There are two portions to any description of the hypothalamic hormones: |
The hypothalamus secretes tropic hormones exclusively into the blood vessels within the hypothalamus. These tropic hormones are going to affect the anterior pituitary.
Meanwhile, the hypothalamus also produces hormones that have direct effects on body tissues. These hormones are those that it secretes within the posterior pituitary. |
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Hypothalamus
There are two portions to any description of the hypothalamic hormones: |
The hypothalamus secretes tropic hormones exclusively into the blood vessels within the hypothalamus. These tropic hormones are going to affect the anterior pituitary.
Meanwhile, the hypothalamus also produces hormones that have direct effects on body tissues. These hormones are those that it secretes within the posterior pituitary. |
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Oxytocin and vasopressin are important for bonding
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In women, oxytocin facilitates lactation and infant bonding
Oxytocin rises in women in affectionate relationships, and in women in distressed relationships. Oxytocin may signal the need to seek social contact. Autism treatment? Oxytocin contributes to recognition of social cues in men Men with a particular vasopressin receptor gene are more likely to be unmarried or to have had a recent marital crisis |
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In women, oxytocin facilitates
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lactation and infant bonding
Oxytocin rises in women in affectionate relationships, and in women in distressed relationships. Oxytocin may signal the need to seek social contact. Autism treatment? |
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Oxytocin contributes to recognition of social cues in men
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Men with a particular vasopressin receptor gene are more likely to be unmarried or to have had a recent marital crisis
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Secretions of the Anterior Pituitary
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Hypothalamic neurons synthesize releasing hormones
Releasing hormones are secreted into local blood vessels Releasing hormones are carried to anterior pituitary, which releases hormones |
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Adrenal cortex
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secretes steroid hormones
Cortisol is a stress hormone that increases blood glucose and breaks down protein |
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Cortisol
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is a stress hormone that increases blood glucose and breaks down protein
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Adrenal medulla releases:
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Epinephrine
Norepinephrine |
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Iodine deficiency
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causes cretinism
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Thyroid hormones contain
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iodine and depend on its supply
A goiter is a swelling of the thyroid gland in the neck from iodine deficiency Early thyroid deficiency results in cretinism with mental retardation |
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Early thyroid deficiency results in
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cretinism with mental retardation
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A goiter
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is a swelling of the thyroid gland in the neck from iodine deficiency
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Cushing’s disease
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results from long-term excess glucocorticoids, with fatigue and depression
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Sex is like hunger and thirst:
It involves arousal and satiation It has hormonal control It is controlled by specific areas of the brain |
Sex is unlike hunger and thirst:
It is not a homeostatic tissue need Individuals don’t require sex for survival, but species do |
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Sex is unlike hunger and thirst:
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It is not a homeostatic tissue need
Individuals don’t require sex for survival, but species do |
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Sex is like hunger and thirst:
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It involves arousal and satiation
It has hormonal control It is controlled by specific areas of the brain |
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social influence hypothesis,
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which emphasizes home environment or early seduction as causes of homosexuality
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Sexual Orientation Brain’s Role in Homosexuality
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The INAH3 (third interstitial nucleus of the anterior hypothalamus) was female-sized (smaller) in gay men
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Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN
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SCN) is larger in gay men than in heterosexual men and contained more vasopressin-secreting cells
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Anterior commissure
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is larger in gay men and heterosexual women than in heterosexual men
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Transsexual males
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have a female-sized (smaller) central bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BSTc)
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Sexual Orientation Brain’s Role in Homosexuality
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Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is larger in gay men than in heterosexual men and contained more vasopressin-secreting cells
Anterior commissure is larger in gay men and heterosexual women than in heterosexual men Gay men’s verbal and spatial performance is more similar to women’s than to heterosexual men’s Brain response of gays and lesbians to presumed pheromones is more like that of the other sex Transsexual males have a female-sized (smaller) central bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BSTc) |
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Hormonal Influence
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Male homosexuals and heterosexuals have same testosterone level
Any hormonal influence on homosexuality likely occurs prenatally |
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Little evidence that brains of lesbians are masculinized prenatally.
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They perform like heterosexual females on verbal and spatial tests.
However, CAH females are exposed to excess androgens prenatally and are more likely to have lesbian or bisexual orientation Lesbians are like males in two characteristics of prenatal androgen exposure: index-to-ring finger ratio click-evoked otoacoustic emissions |
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Testes
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secrete testosterone
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SRY gene
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sex-determining region on Y chromosome
Responsible for development of testes. Without an SRY gene, an ovary forms X Chromosome from Mom X or Y Chromosome from Dad |
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Organizing effects
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mostly occur prenatally and shortly after birth
They affect structure and are lifelong |
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Activating effects
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can occur at any time in life
They come and go with hormonal fluctuations or are long lasting, but are reversible |
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Hormone surges trigger both organizing and activating effects at puberty
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Organizing effects:
Maturation of genitalia Growth spurt Activating effects at puberty: Breast growth in girls and egg release during menstrual cycle; production of sperm, muscle development, hair growth in boys; and a dramatic increase in sexual interest |
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Ovaries
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produce progesterone and estrogens
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sexually receptive, or in estrus
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Estrogens produced at beginning of ovulatory cycle are important for non-human female sexual behavior
If a female is willing to copulate, she is sexually receptive, or in estrus Human females do not have estrus cycles |
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Androgens
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Androgens Are Necessary for Male Copulation
This does apply to human males |
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Sexual Response Curves
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Excitement phase (arousal)
During plateau arousal levels off Orgasm Resolution follows as arousal falls and body returns to normal |
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PET imaging of male orgasm
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Oxytocin release at ejaculation is blocked by naloxone; men report less pleasurable orgasms during naloxone treatment
Primary activation was found in the ventral tegmental area |
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Medial preoptic area of the hypothalamus (MPOA)
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More important in performance than sexual motivation
The MPOA appears to be more responsible for performance than sexual motivation, when it was destroyed in male monkeys, they no longer tried to copulate, but instead they would masturbate in the presence of a female |
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Medial amygdala (in the temporal lobe)
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Involved in sexual behavior, aggression, and emotions
amygdala is involved not only in sexual behavior but also aggression and emotion. The medial amygdala is active while rats copulate and stimulation causes the release of dopamine in the MPOA. The medial amygdala's role apparently is to respond to sexually exciting stimuli, such as the presence of a potential sex partner |
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Brain area important for females:
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Ventromedial hypothalamus
Receptivity to male advances |
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Sex: Brain areas important for males
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Paraventricular nucleus
important for sexual performance Sexually dimorphic nucleus Located in the MPOA 2-3x larger in men Male sexual activity related to its size Size depends on prenatal exposure to testosterone |
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sexually dimporphic nucleus
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located in the MPOA, the SDN is five times larger in male rats than in females, a male's level of sexual activity is related to the size of the SDN, which in turn depends on prenatal exposure to testosterone. Destruction of the SDN reduces male sexual activity.
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ventromedial hypothalamus
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important for sexual behavior in female rats, increases during copulation and its destruction reduces the female's responsiveness to a male's advances
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dopamine
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Dopamine (DA)
DA activity in the MPOA is involved in sexual motivation in both sexes and is critical for sexual performance in males Drugs that increase DA increase sexual activity in humans Increasing levels of DA produce erection in males, then ejaculation |
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serotonin ( 5HT)
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Serotonin (5HT)
Ejaculation is also accompanied by serotonin increases in the lateral hypothalamus. Injecting SSRI into lateral hypothalamus increases the time before male rats attempt to copulate again Both men and women complain that SSRIs impair their sexual ability |
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dopamine
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dopamine levels increase in the nucleus accumbens during sexual activity, stimulation of the medial amygdala release dopamine in the MPOA. in males, initial small amounts of dopamine stimulate D1 receptors which activate the parasympathetic system and increase motivation and erection , while delayin ejaculation. as dopamine increases, activation of D2 receptors shifts autonomic balance to sympathetic system, resulting in ejacuation. D2 actuvity also inhibits erection, which accounts for sexual refractory period. Drugs that increase dopamine levels increase sexual activity in humans
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Sex determination
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SRY gene – sex-determining region on Y chromosome – is responsible for development of testes - Without an SRY gene, an ovary forms
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Biological Determination of Sex
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Organizing effects mostly occur prenatally and shortly after birth
They affect structure and are lifelong Activating effects can occur at any time in life They come and go with hormonal fluctuations or are long lasting, but are reversible Hormone surges trigger both organizing and activating effects at puberty Organizing effects: Maturation of genitalia Growth spurt Activating effects at puberty: Breast growth in girls and egg release during menstrual cycle; production of sperm, muscle development, hair growth in boys; and a dramatic increase in sexual interest |
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Organizing effects mostly occur prenatally and shortly after birth
They affect structure and are lifelong |
Organizing effects:
Maturation of genitalia Growth spurt |
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Activating effects can occur at any time in life
They come and go with hormonal fluctuations or are long lasting, but are reversible |
Activating effects at puberty:
Breast growth in girls and egg release during menstrual cycle; production of sperm, muscle development, hair growth in boys; and a dramatic increase in sexual interest |
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Gonadal Hormones Differentiate Brain and Behavior
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Testosterone presence masculinizes genitalia and the brain
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What masculinizes the brain?
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Estradiol!
Sex steroids derive from cholesterol and are interconverted Estradiol is converted (aromatized) from testosterone |
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Why doesn’t estradiol masculinize female brains?
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Females are protected in development by a-fetoprotein, which binds in blood to maternal estradiol and prevents it from reaching brain (where it would masculinize)
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Male Brain
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Male:
Testosterone secreted into the blood reaches brain Testosterone converted to estradiol and dihydrotestosterone in the brain Estradiol masculinizes the brain |
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Female Brain
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Female:
Alpha-fetoprotein binds to estradiol Prevents estradiol from entering the brain Protects female brains from being masculinized by estradiol |
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Sexual Differentiation of the Brain
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Estrogens feminize the female brain
Without estradiol female rats show less sexual interest and receptivity Estrogens also defeminize the male brain Without estrogen receptors, male rats show more female-like behavior |
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Brain Development: Sex Differences
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Hemisphere Differentiation
MRI study of 114 patients, aged 56-85 yrs found women have larger corpus callosum size of corpus callosum correlates with cognitive skills in women 21 fetal brains were examined and they found: Males have greater asymmetry than females Right hemisphere thicker in males than females |
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Genders: Behavioral and Cognitive Differences
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Some girl-boy differences are firm:
Most girls have greater verbal ability than most boys Most boys excel in visual-spatial ability Most boys are more aggressive than girls There are more boys who are great at math than girls; but overall ability is the same However, there is much overlap between men and women |
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Spatial ability is affected by masculinization
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High estrogen level is associated with
depressed spatial ability enhanced speech and manual skill tasks Spatial abilities usually better in boys are enhanced in androgenized girls |
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The Role of Hormones in Male-Female Differences
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Testosterone is related to spatial ability and aggression
Males low in testosterone during development are impaired in spatial ability Testosterone improves spatial ability in older men Female transsexuals taking testosterone show spatial improvement, but loss of verbal fluency |
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Gender-Related Behavioral and Cognitive Differences
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Men/women activate different brain areas during learning, pain, stress
Disorders: Males are more susceptible to autism, Tourette’s syndrome, and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder Females are more likely to suffer from depression, anxiety |
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Men and Women’s Brain Boxes
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Young girls' brains tend to mature faster in the front part, which is responsible, among other things, for language learning and controlling aggression and impulsivity For boys, the fastest development is in the back of the brain, which performs visual-spatial tasks at which males tend to excel such as geometry and puzzle-solving
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hypothalamus
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controls hormone secretions
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pineal gland
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reproductive maturation, bodily rhythms
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pituitary gland
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1. anterior pituitary =hormone secretion by thyroid, adrenal cortex, and gonads, growth
2. posterior pituitary- water balance, salt balance |
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thyroid
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growth and development, metabolic rate
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adrenal glands
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1. adrenal cortex-salt and carbohydrate metabolism, inflammatory reactions
2. adrenal medulla- emotional arousal |
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pancreas ( islets of langerhans)
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sugar metabolism
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Gut
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digestion and appetite control
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gonads ( testes and ovaries)
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body development, maintenance of reproductive organs in adults
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autism-oxytocin
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Oxytocin, the so-called hormone of love, may help promote social skills and social behavior in people with high-functioning autism. Other research has found that children with autism have lower levels of oxytocin than children without autism.
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male and female brains
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Young girls' brains tend to mature faster in the front part, which is responsible, among other things, for language learning and controlling aggression and impulsivity For boys, the fastest development is in the back of the brain, which performs visual-spatial tasks at which males tend to excel such as geometry and puzzle-solving
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cortisol
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high in morning, low in evening
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hypothalamus
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controls hormone secretions
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pineal gland
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reproductive maturations, bodily rhythms
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pituitary gland
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anterior pituitary- hormone secretion by thyroid, adrenal cortex and gonads, growth
posterior pitutuitary-water balance and salt balance |
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thyroid
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growth and development, metabolic rate
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adrenal glands
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adrenal cortex ( outer bark )-salt and carbohydrate metabolism, inflammatory reaction
adrenal medulla ( inner core)- emotional arousal |
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pancreas ( islets of Langerhans)
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sugar metabolism
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Gut
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digestion and appetite control
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Gonads (testes/ovaries)
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body development, maintenance of reproductive organs in adult
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supraoptic nucleus, and paraventricular nucleus
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posterior pituitary, oxytocin and vassopressin
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chromosomal sex
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XX,XY
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gonadal sex
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testes and ovaries
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internal sex organs
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uterus and prostate
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external sex organs
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vagina and penis
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brain sex
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females and males brain
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gender identity
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social affiliation
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gender preference
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what do you prefer in you partner
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clock
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clock in brain is vassopressin
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Leydig cells
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produce testosterone
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sertoli
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produce sperm
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males
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have a refractory
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SDN
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testosterone blocks apoptosis in the SDN
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female
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have better recoverablity
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spina fibida
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marker for dev disorder if women dont have alpha -fetoprotein
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guy brain aromatizd
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makes hypothalamus noncyclic
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right side activators and jist of the matter, testosterone
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testosterone activates the emotional left side, more detail oriented
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Female-initiated activity during the menstrual cycle
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activity initiated by women peaks around the middle of the menustrual cycle, which is when ovulation occurs (-14 before ovulation)
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relation ship bettween sexual behavior and salivary testosterone levels in men and women
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Testosterone increases in women as a result of sexual activity
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