Honors Gen. Chem. Final Exam

Front 1

biochemistry

Back 1

the study of chemistry occuring in living organisms

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lipid

Back 2

chemical compoenents of the cell that are insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar solvents; include fatty acids, triglycerides, and steroids

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fatty acid

Back 3

a carboxylic acid with a long hydrocarbon tail

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triglyceride

Back 4

triesters composed of glycerol with three fatty acids

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ester linkage

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the bonds that join glycerol to the fatty acid in triglycerides

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saturated fat

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a triglyceride with no double bonds in the hydocarbon chain; tend to be solid at room temperature

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unsaturated fat

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a triglyceride with one or more double bondsin the hydrocarbon tail; tend to be liquid at room temperature

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phospholipids

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compound similar in structure to a triglyceride but with one fatty acid replaced by a phosphate group

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glycolipid

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a triglyceride composed of a fatty acid, a hydrocarbon chain, and a sugar molecule as the polar section

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lipid bilayer

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a double-layered structure made of phospholipids or glycolipids, in which the polar heads of the molecules interact with the environment and the nonpolar tails interact with each other; a component of many cellular membranes

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steroid

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a lipid composed of four fused hydrocarbon rings

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carbohydrate

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a polyhydroxyl aldehyde or ketone

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monosaccharide

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the simplest carbohydrates, with 3 to 8 carbon atoms and only one aldehyde or ketone group

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hexose

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a six-carbon sugar

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aldose

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a sugar that is an aldehyde

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ketose

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a sugar that is a ketone

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glycosidic linkage

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a bond between carbohydrates that results from a dehydration reaction

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disaccharide

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a carbohydrate composed of two monosaccharides

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hydrolysis

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the splitting of a chemical with water, resulting in the addition of H and OH to the products

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polysaccharide

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a long, chainlike molecule composed of many monosaccharide units bonded together

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complex carbohydrates

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another term for a polysaccharide based on the fact that it is made up of many simple sugars

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cellulose

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a polysaccharide that consists of glucose units bonded together by glycosidic linkage; the main structural component of plants, and the most abundant organic substance on earth

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starch

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a polysaccharide that consists of glucose units bonded together by glycosidic linkages; the main energy storage medium for plants

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glycogen

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a highly branched form of starch; used to store glucose in animal muscle

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enzyme

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a biochemical catalyst made of protein that increases the rates of biochemical reactions

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amino acids

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organic compounds that contain a carbon group bonded to four different groups: an amine group, an R group, a carboxylic acid group, and a hydrogen atom

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peptide bond

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the bond that forms between the amine end of one amino acid and the carboxylic end of another

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dipeptide

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two amino acids linked together

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polypeptide

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a chain of amino acids joined together by peptide bonds

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fibrous protein

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a protein with a relatively linear structure; fibrous proteins tend to be insoluble in aqueous solutions

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globular proteins

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a protein that folds into a roughly spherical shape so that its polar side chains are oriented outward and its nonpolar side chains toward the interior; tend to be soluble in water

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primary structure

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the sequence of amino acids in a protein chain

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secondary structure

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the regular periodic or repeating patterns in the arrangement of protein chains

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random coil

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sections of protein's secondary structure that have less regular patterns than helixes or pleated sheets

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tertiary structure

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the large-scale bends and folds produced by interactions between the R groups of amino acids that are separated by large distances in the linear sequence of a protein chain

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alpha-helix

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a pattern in the secondary structure of a protein that occurs when the amino acid chain is wrapped tightly in a coil with the side chains extending outward

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beta-pleated sheet

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a pattern in the secondary structure of a protein that occurs when the amino acid chain is extended and forms a zigzag pattern

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quaternary structure

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the way that subunits fit together in a multimeric protein

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nucleotide

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the individual units composing nucleic acids; each consists of a phosphate group, a sugar, and a nitrogenous base

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complementary

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capable of precise pairing; in particular, the bases of nucleic acids

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codon

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a sequence of three bases in a nucleic acid that codes for one amino acid

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gene

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a sequence of codons within a DNA molecule that codes for a single protein

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chromosome

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the DNA-containing structures that occur in the nuclei of living cells

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organic molecule

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a molecule containing carbon combined with several other elements including hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen or sulfur

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organic chemistry

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the study of carbon-based compounds

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alkane

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a hydrocarbon containing only single bonds

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alkene

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a hydrocarbon containing one or more carbon-carbon double bonds

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alkyne

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a hydrocarbon containing one or more carbon-carbon triple bonds

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aromatic hydrocarbon

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a hydrocarbon that contains a benzene ring

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aliphatic hydrocarbon

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alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes

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structural isomers

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molecules with the same molecular formula but different structures

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structural formula

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a molecular formula that shows how the atoms in a molecule are connected or bonded to each other

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stereoisomers

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molecules in which the atoms are bonded in the same order, but have a different spatial arrangement

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optical isomers

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two molecules that are nonsuperimposable mirror images of one another

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enantiomers

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optical isomers

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chiral molecule

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a molecule that is nonsuperimposable on its mirror image, and thus exhibits optical isomerism

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racemic mixture

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an equimolar mixture of two optical isomers that does not rotate the plane of polarization of light at all

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saturated hydrocarbons

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a hydrocarbon containing no double bonds in the carbon chain

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unsaturated hydrocarbon

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a hydrocarbon that contains one or more double bonds

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geometric isomerism

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a form of stereoisomerism involving the orientation of functional groups in a molecule that contains bonds incapable of rotating

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phenyl group

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a benzene ring treated as a substituent

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alcohol

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a member of the family of organic compounds that contain a hydroxyl functional group (-OH)

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aldehyde

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a member of the family of organic compounds that contain a carbonyl functional group (C--O) bonded to two R groups, one of which is a hydrogen atom

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ketone

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a member of the family of organic compounds that contain a carbonyl functional group (C--O) bonded to two R groups, neither of which is a hydrogen atom

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addition reaction

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a type of organic in which two substituents are added across a double bond

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carboxylic acid

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An organic acid containing the functional group -COOH

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esters

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A family of organic compounds with the general structure R-COO-R

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ether

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A member of the family of organic compounds of the form R-O-R'

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amines

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derivatives of ammonia with one or more of the hydrogen atoms replaced by alkyl groups

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Lewis theory

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a simple model of chemical bonding using diagrams that represent bonds between atoms as lines or pairs of dots. In this theory, atoms bond together to obtain stable octets (8 valence elcectrons)

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Lewis structures

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A drawing that represents chemical bonds between atoms as shared or transferred electrons; the valence electrons of atoms are represented as dots

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ionic bond

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metal bonded to a nonmetal; a chemical bond formed between two oppositely charged ions that are attracted to one another by electrostatic forces

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covalent bond

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nonmetal bonded to a nonmetal; a chemical bond in which two atoms share electrons that interact with the nuclei of both atoms, lowering the potential energy of each through electrostatic interactions

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metallic bonding

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the type of bonding that occurs in metal crystals, in which the metal atoms donate their electrons to an electron sea, delocalized over the entire crystal lattice

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octet

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a lewis structure with eight dots, signaling a filled outer electron shell for s and p block elements

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duet

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a lewis structure with two dots, signifying a filled outer electron shell for the elements H and He

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chemical bond

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the sharing or transfer of electrons to attain stable electron eonfigurations for the bonding atoms

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octet rule

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the tendency for most bonded atoms to possess or share eight electron in their outer shell to obtain stable electron configurations and lower their potential energy

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lattice energy

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the energy associated with forming a crystalline lattice from gaseous ions

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Born-Haber cycle

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a hypothetical series of steps based on Hess's Law that represents the formation of an ionic compound from its constituent elements

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bonding pair

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a pair of electrons shared between two atoms

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lone pair

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a pair of electrons associated with only one atom

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double bond

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the bond that forms when two electron pairs are shared between two atoms

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triple bond

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the bond that forms when three electron pairs are shared between two atoms

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polar covelent bond

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a covalent bond between two atoms with significantly different electronegativities, resulting in an uneven distribution of electron density

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electronegativity

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the ability of an atom to attract electrons to itself in a covalent bond

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dipole moment

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a measure of the separation of positive and negative charge in a molecule

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percent ionic character

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the ratio of a bond's actual dipole moment to the dipole moment it would haveif the electron were transferred completely from one atom to the other, multiplied by 100%

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resonance structures

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two or more valid Lewis structures that are shown with double-headed arrows betweem them to indicate that the actual structure of the molecule is intermediate between them

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resonance hybrid

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the actual structure of a molecule that is intermediate between two or more resonance structures

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formal charge

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the charge that an atom in a Lewis structure would have if if all the bonding electrons were shared equally between the bonded atoms

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free radical

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a molecule or ion with an odd number of electrons in its Lewis structure

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bond energy

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the energy required to break 1 mol of the bond in the gas phase

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bond length

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the average length of a bond between two particular atoms in a variety of compounds

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valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory

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a theory that allows prediction of the shapes of molecules based on the idea that electrons-either lone pairs or as bonding pairs-repel one another

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electron groups

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a general term for lone pairs, single bonds, multiple bonds, or lone electrons in a molecule

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linear geometry

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the molecular geometry of three atoms with a 180 degree bond angle due to the repulsion of two electron groups

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trigonal planar geometry

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the moleular geometry of four atoms with 120 degree bond angles in a plane

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tetrahedral geometry

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the molecular geometry between five atoms with 109.5 degree bond angle

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trigonal bipyramidal geometry

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the molecular geometry of six atoms with 120 degree bond angles between the three equatorial electron groups and 90 degree bond angles between the two axial electron groups and the trigonal plane

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octehedral geometry

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the molecular geometry of seven atoms with 90 degree bond angles

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electron geometry

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the geometrical arrangement of electron groups in a molecule

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molecular geometry

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the geometrical arrangement of atoms in a molecule

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trigonal pyramidal geometry

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the molecular geometry of a molecule with tetrahedral electron geometry and one lone pair

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square pyramidal geometry

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the molecular geometry of a molecule with octehedral electron geometry and one lone pair

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seesaw geometry

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the molecular geometry of a molecule with trigonal bipyramidal electron geometry and one lone pair in an axial position

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T-shaped geometry

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the molecular geometry of a molecule with trigonal bipyramidal electron geometry and two lone pairs in the axial position

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square planar geometry

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the molecular geometry of a molecule with octahedral electron geometry and two lone pairs

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valence bond theory

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an advanced model of chemical bonding in which electrons reside in quantum-mechanical orbitals localized on individual atoms that are a hybridized blend of standard atomic orbitals; chemical bonds result from an overlap of these orbitals

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hybridization

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a mathematical procedure in which standard atomic orbitals are combined to form new, hybrid orbitals

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hybrid orbitals

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orbitals formed from the combination of standard atomic orbitals that correspond more closely to the actual distribution of electrons in a chemically bonded atom

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pi bond

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the bond that forms between two p orbitals that overlap side to side

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sigma bond

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the resulting bond that forms between a combination of any two s, p or hybridized orbitals that overlap end to end

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molecular orbital theory

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an advanced model of chemical bonding in which electrons reside in molecular orbitals delocalized over the entire molecule. In the simplest version, the molecular orbitals are simply linear combinations of atomic orbitals

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bonding orbital

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a molecular orbital that is lower in energy than any of the atomic orbitals form which it was formed

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antibonding orbital

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a molecular orbital that is higher in energy than any of the atomic orbitals form which it was formed

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bond order

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for a molecule, the number of electrons in bonding orbitals minus the number of electrons in nonbonding orbitals divided by two; a positive bond order implies that the molecule is stable

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nonbonding orbitals

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an orbital whose electrons remain localized on an atom

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pressure

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a measure of force exerted per unit area; in chemistry, most commonly the force exerted by gas molecules as they strike the surfaces around them

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Boyle's Law

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the law that states that volume of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure

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Charles's Law

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the law that states that the volume of a gas is directly proportional to its temperature

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Avogadro's Law

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the law that states that the volume of a gas is directly proportional to its amount of moles

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ideal gas law

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the law that combines the relationship of Boyle's, Charles's and Avogadro's laws into one comprehensive equation of state with the proportionality constant R in the form PV=nRT

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ideal gas constant

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the proportionality constant of the ideal gas law, R, equal to 0.08206 L.atm/mol.K

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standard temperature and pressure (STP)

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the conditions of T=273 K and P=1 atm; used primarily in reference to gas

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molar volume

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the volume occupied by one mol of a gas; the molar volume of an ideal gas at STP is 22.4 L

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partial pressure

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the pressure due to any individual component in a gas mixture

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Dalton's law of partial pressures

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the law stating that the sum of the partial pressures of the components in a gas mixture must equal the total pressure

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mole fraction

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the number of moles of a component in a mixture divided by the total number of moles of the mixture

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kinetic molecular theory

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a model of an ideal gas as a collection of point particles in constant motion undergoing completely elastic collisions

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mean free path

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the average distance that a molecule in a gas travels between collisions

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diffusion

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the process by which a gas spreads through a space occupied by another gas

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effusion

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the procession by which a gas escapes from a container into a vacuum through a hole

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van der Waals equation

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the extrapolation of the ideal gas law that considers the effects of intermolecular forces and particle volume in a nonideal gas