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117 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is a stimulus?
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A change in the environment, either internal or external, that is detected by a receptor and elicits a response.
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What is a response?
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A change in an organism, produced by a stimulus.
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What is a reflex?
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A rapid unconscious response to a stimulus.
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What five parts do reflex arcs involve?
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Receptors, sensory neurons, relay neurons, motor neurons, and effectors.
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What is a reflex arc?
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A precise pathway of neurons, with at least three synapses.
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What is an example of a reflex?
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Pulling your hand away from a hot stove. (pain withdrawal reflex)
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Be sure you can label the parts of a reflex arc.
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Okay.
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Be sure you can label the parts of the ear.
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Okay.
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Be sure you can label the parts of the eye.
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Okay.
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Be sure you can label the parts of the brain.
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Okay.
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What is the function of a receptor?
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to detect a stimulus; receptors can be sensory cells or nerve ending of sensory neurons.
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What is the function of sensory neurons?
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to receive messages across synapses, from receptors and carry them to the central nervous system (spinal cord or brain)
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What is the function of relay neurons?
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to receive messages, across synapses, from sensory neurons, and pass them to the motor neurons that can cause an appropriate response.
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What is the function of motor neurons?
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to receive messages, across synapses, from relay neurons and carry them to an effector.
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What is the function of effectors?
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to carry out a response after receiving a message from a motor neuron; effectors can be muscles, which respond by contracting, or glands, which respond by secreting.
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What are some real world examples of natural selection and responses?
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The migration of the blackcap bird in Germany changed with global warming and now 10% of them fly to the UK instead of Spain. They have proven that they are genetically inclined to fly in those directions.
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What is the stimulus for mechanoreceptors? Give an example.
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The stimuli are mechanical energy in the form of sound waves and movements due to pressure or gravity. An example of this would be hair cells in the cochlea of the ear and pressure receptor cells in the skin.
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What is the stimulus for chemoreceptors? Give an example.
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The stimuli are chemical substances dissolved in water (tongue) and chemical substances as vapors in the air (nose). Some examples of this are the nerve endings in the nose and receptor cells in the tongue.
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What is the stimulus for thermoreceptors? Give an example.
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The stimulus is temperature. An example of this would be Nerve endings in the skin detecting warmth and coolness.
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What is the stimulus for photoreceptors? Give an example.
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The stimulus is electromagnetic radiation, usually in the form of light. An example of this would be the rod and cone system in the eye.
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What 4 things in the ear affect your perception of sound?
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The eardrum, and bones of the middle ear, the oval window, and the hair cells in the cochlea.
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Where are the photoreceptors of the eye?
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In the retina.
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What are the two types of photoreceptor cells?
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Rod cells and cone cells.
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What do cone and rod cells both do?
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They both absorb light and then transmit messages to the brain, via the optic nerve.
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How are cone and rod cells different?
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Rod cells are more sensitive to light, rod cells absorb all wavelengths of visible light (whereas cone cells see only red blue and green), up to 200 rod cells pass impulses to the same sensory neuron of the optic nerve (whereas cone cells often times have their own neuron, giving them greater visual acuity), and finally rod cells are more widely dispersed through the retina so they give a wider field of vision.
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What is convergence?
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It is part of the processing of visual stimuli in which bipolar cells in the retina combine the impulses from groups of rod or cone cells and pass them on to ganglion cells. (sensory neurons of the optic nerve)
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What is contralateral processing?
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When the left optic nerve carries information from the right half of the field of vision and vice versa, which allows the brain to deduce distances and sizes.
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Where do the left and right optic nerves meet?
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At a structure called the optic chiasma.
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What are some examples of learned behavior?
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Some chimpanzees learn to catch termites by poking sticks into termite mounds, foxes learn to avoid touching electric fences after receiving an electric shock, and many bird species learn to take avoiding action when they hear alarm calls warning them of a predator.
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Know about Pavlov.
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Okay.
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What is innate behavior?
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It is the behavior that is instinctive to the animal.
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Is birdsong innate of learned?
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It is both. There is an innate instinct to sing, but they learn what and how to sing.
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What are the two main synapses in the nervous system?
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Excitatory synapses and inhibitory synapses.
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How does an excitatory synapses work?
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The neurotransmitter released by the presynaptic neuron causes sodium ions or other positively charged ions to enter the postsynaptic neuron, helping to depolarize it and cause an action potential. Postsynaptic transmission is therefore excited.
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How does inhibitory synapses work?
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In these synapses, the neurotransmitter released by the presynaptic neuron causes negatively charged chloride ions to move into the postsynaptic neuron, increasing its polarization. This effect, called hyperpolarization, makes it more difficult to depolarize a neuron sufficiently to cause an action potential. Postsynaptic transmission is therefore inhibited.
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Why might the effects of excitatory neurotransmitters be cancelled out?
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If an inhibitory neurotransmitter is also being released.
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How are decisions made by the central nervous system?
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Most of the decisions in the CNS are based on the summation of messages from the many synapses.
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What are drugs?
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They are chemical substances that are ingested, injected, inhaled, or put into the body in some other way, to cause a change in the functioning of the body.
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What are psychoactive drugs?
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Drugs that affect the brain and personality.
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How do most psychoactive drugs affect the brain?
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By disrupting synaptic transmission.
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What are some examples of excitatory drugs?
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Nicotine, cocaine, amphetamines.
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What are some examples of inhibitory drugs?
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Alcohol, benzodiazepines, and THC.
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How do psychoactive drugs affect synaptic transmission?
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Some drugs have a chemical structure that is similar to neurotransmitters and so bind to the receptor that would usually receive that neurotrasmitter, blocking the receptor and preventing it from having its usual effect. Other drugs that have a similar structure to a neurotransmitter have the same effect as the neurotransmitter, but they don't break down and thus the effect lasts much longer. Some drugs interfere with the breakdown of neurotransmitters in synapses or its absorption into the presynaptic neuron and so prolong the effect of neurotransmitters.
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What are the three factors that increase levels of drug addiction, especially when combined?
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Dopamine secretion, genetic predisposition, and social factors.
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What is a common factor of many addictive drugs?
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Transmission is stimulated at synapses using dopamine as a neurotransmitter.
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What increase the chances of an addiction developing?
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Cultural traditions, peer pressure, poverty, social deprivation, traumatic life experiences, and mental health problems.
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What is crack?
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It is a form of cocaine that forms a vapor when it is heated. It can therefore be inhaled and absorbed very rapidly and gives very intense effects. These cause greater addiction and overdose problems then other forms of cocaine.
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How does cocaine work?
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It stimulates transmission at synapses in the brain that use dopamine as a neurotransmitter. Cocaine binds to membrane proteins that pump dopamine back into the presynaptic neuron. It blocks these transporters, causing a build up of dopamine in the synapses.
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What are the synapses that use dopamine as a neurotransmitter responsible for?
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Pleasurable feelings we get during certain activities like eating and sex.
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What are some physical "symptoms" of cocaine?
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It gives feelings of euphoria that are not related to any activity in particular. It also causes users to have increased energy, alertness and talkativeness.
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What is THC most commonly found in?
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Cannabis, or marijuana, or mary jane, or pot.
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What should you not do when on THC?
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Drive or operate machinery.
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Where can cannabinoid receptors be found?
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In synapses in various parts of the brain, including the cerebellum, the hippocampus, and cerebral hemispheres.
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What are some "symptoms" of THC?
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Short-term memory impairment, intoxication, and stimulation of appetite are some affects.
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How does THC work?
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THC affects transmission at an unusual type of synapse, where the postsynaptic neuron can release a signalling chemical that binds to receptors in the membrane of the presynaptic neuron. When THC binds to cannabinoid receptors, it blocks the release of excitatory neurotransmitters.
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What is the function of the medulla oblongata?
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It controls automatic and homeostatic activities, such as swallowing and vomiting, digestion, breathing, and heart activity.
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What is the function of the cerebellum?
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It coordinates unconscious functions such as balance and movements, including hand eye coordination.
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What is the function of the hypothalamus?
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It maintains homeostasis using both the nervous and the endocrine systems; produces the hormones that are secreted by the posterior pituitary gland; sends releasing factors to stimulate hormone secretion by the anterior pituitary gland.
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What is the function of the pituitary gland?
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The posterior lobe stores and secretes hormones produced by the hypothalamus; anterior lobe produces and secretes hormones that regulate many body functions.
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What is the function of the cerebral hemispheres?
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It receives impulses from the eye, ear, nose, and tongue; acts as the integrating centre for higher complex functions, including learning, memory, emotions, and consciousness.
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How have scientists investigated brain function?
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Animal experiments, lesions, and functional magnetic resonance imaging.
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What is pupil reflex?
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It is when a bright light is shone into one eye and both pupils in each eye constrict.
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How does the pupil reflex allow doctors to see if there is serious damage to the brain?
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The medulla oblongata is damaged then reflexes like the pupil reflex will not work and indicate that the subject may have injuries serious enough to have caused brain death.
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What is the autonomic nervous system?
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The part of the nervous system that is used to control internal processes unconsciously.
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What are the two systems of the autonomic nervous system?
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The parasympathetic and sympathetic systems.
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What are three process that are carried out by the parasympathetic system?
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Heart rate is slowed as the body relaxes, blood vessels are dilated, circular muscle fibers contract in order to contract the pupil.
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What are some processes that are controlled by the sympathetic system?
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Heart rate speeds up so blood can get to the muscles, blood vessels are constricted, and radial muscles contract to dilate the pupil and allow for a better image.
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Where are pain receptors located?
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In the skin and other organs.
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Where are impulses from pain receptors sent?
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To the cerebral cortex, causing feelings of pain.
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What does the pituitary gland release when pain becomes excessive or gets in the way of important activities?
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Endorphins! Endorphins make you happy, and happy people just don't kill their husbands, they just don't!
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When are endorphins secreted?
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During stressful times, after injuries, and even during physical exercise such as running.
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What are some examples of foraging behavior?
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Bluegill sunfish live in ponds where the have access to small, medium, and large prey. When prey is abundant, they always choose the larger prey because it takes less energy exertion to become full and get their proper nutrient. Starlings are birds that feed their young mainly on crane-fish larvae. The further away their nest is from the food source, the more larvae they are willing to carry in their beaks back to their young.
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What are some examples of rhythmical behavior patterns?
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Moonrats have a very good sense of smell that allow them to forage at night, therefore they are nocturnal, making it more difficult from their predators to catch and eat them. Red deer only mate in the fall because that way their babies are born in the spring, when food is the most abundant.
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What are some examples of social organization in animals?
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Honey bees have a social caste that include the queen bee, the drone, and the worker. Naked mole rates in East Africa also have a caste system. It is made up of the queen, the frequent workers, the infrequent workers, and the non-workers.
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In what species can you find proof for the evolution of altruistic behavior? Give examples.
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In the naked mole rats there is only one breeding male and female, none of the other members of the colony breed and therefore sacrifice the chance of their genes being carried on, but because they are all related they are technically aiding in some of their own genes being passed down when they take care of the queens young. In vampire bats it has been found that after two consecutive nights of not getting blood from another animal a vampire bat may die of starvation, but in these situations if another bat has been successfully fed they often regurgitate some of the blood they collected for a hunger companion, even if they are not related. This is because they would like the same to be done for them if they were hungry.
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In what species can you find proof for the evolution of exaggerated traits? Give examples.
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In peacocks, the males have excessively large and colorful tails to attract the ladies, but it often makes them very attractive to predators, that way any individual that survives, despite the exaggerated trait, must be well-adapted in other ways and so is a good mate to choose.
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What are the main abiotic factors?
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temperature, water, light, soil pH, salinity and mineral nutrients
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What is a quadrant?
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A sample area that is usually square and marked out using frames.
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What are the 5 biotic and abiotic factors that affect the distribution of animal species?
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Temperature, water, breeding sites, food supply, and territory.
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How does temperature affect the distribution of animal species?
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external temperatures affect all animals especially those that do not maintain constant internal body temperatures.
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How does water affect the distribution of animal species?
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animals vary in the amount of water they need. some animals live in water and therefore need it, while others live in arid conditions and cannot access water for long periods of time.
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How does breeding sites affect the distribution of animal species?
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all species breed at some stage in their life cycle. many species need a specific site and can only live in areas where these sites are available.
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How does food supply affect the distribution of animal species?
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many animal species are adapted to feed on specific foods and can only live in areas where this food is available.
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How does territory affect the distribution of animal species?
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some species of animal establish and defend territories, either for feeding or breeding. this tends to give their species an even rather than a clumped distribution.
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What is a habitat?
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where the species lives in the ecosystem
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What is nutrition?
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how the species obtains its food
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What is a relationship?
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the interactions with other species in the ecosystem.
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What is the competitive exclusion principle?
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One one species can occupy a niche in an ecosystem.
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What does the niche include?
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Habitat, nutrition, and relationship.
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What is the fundamental niche of a species?
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Its potential mode of existence, given the adaptations of the species.
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And what is the the realized niche of a species?
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Its actual mode of existence, which results from its adaptations of the species.
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What are the major biomes of the world?
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Desert, grassland, shrubland, temperate deciduous forest, tropical rainforest, and tundra.
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What is biomass?
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the total dry mass of organic matter in organisms or ecosystems.
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Why can't biomass be tested in large samples?
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Because it is destructive to the environment.
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What is gross production?
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The total amount of organic matter produced by plants in an ecosystem.
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What is net production?
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The amount of gross production in an ecosystem remaining after subtracting the amount used by plants in respiration.
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What are some characteristics of a desert biome?
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Rainfall is very low; warm to very hot days and cold nights. Very few plants, some storing water and some growing quickly after rain.
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What are some characteristics of a grassland biome?
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Rainfall low; warm or hot summers and cold winters. Dominated by grasses and other herbs that can withstand grazing.
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What are some characteristics of a shrubland biome?
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Cool wet winters and hot dry summers, often with fires. Drought-resistant shrubs dominate. often with evergreen foliage.
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What are some characteristics of a temperate deciduous forest biome?
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Moderate rainfall with warm summers and cool winters. Trees that shed their leaves in the winter dominate with shrubs and herbs beneath.
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What are some characteristics of a tropical rainforest biome?
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Rainfall high to very high and hot or very hot in all seasons. A huge diversity of plants: tall evergreen trees, smaller trees, shrubs, and herbs.
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What are some characteristics of a tundra biome?
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Very low temperatures; little precipitation mostly as snow. Very small trees, a few herbs, mosses and lichens are present.
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What is an ecological succession?
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A series of changes to an ecosystem, caused by complex interactions between the community of living organisms and the abiotic organisms.
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Where does primary succession start?
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In an environment where living organisms have not previously existed.
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Where does secondary succession occur?
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In areas where an ecosystem is present, but is replaced by other ecosystems, because of a change in conditions.
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What are some of the negative effects of ultra violet radiation?
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Increases mutation rates, can cause cancer, causes sunburns and cataracts, reduces photosynthesis in plants and algae.
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What are the main causes of ozone depletion?
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CFCs
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Is an r-strategy for a stable environment?
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NO
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Is a k-strategy for a stable environment?
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Indeed.
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What is biomagnification?
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the process by which chemical substances become more concentrated at each trophic level.
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What is in-situ conservation?
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When a species is conserved in its own habitat.
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What are some advantages to in-situ conservation?
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the species remains adapted to their habitats, greater genetic diversity can be conserved, animals maintain natural behavioral patterns, and the species interact with each other helping to conserve the whole ecosystem.
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Why might in-situ conservation not be enough to save a species?
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They are too rare to leave unprotected in the wild and sometimes their natural habitat is destroyed, making it essential to remove the threatened species from it.
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What are some examples of ex-situ conservation?
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Captive breeding, botanic gardens, and seed banks.
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What are some examples of r-strategies?
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only growing to a small body size, maturing early, reproducing only once, producing many offspring.
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What are some examples of k-strategies?
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growing to a large body size, maturing late, reproducing more than once, producing few offspring, and giving much parental care to offspring.
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What is the maximum sustainable yield?
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the largest amount that can be harvested without a decline in the stocks.
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