History Timeline All

Front 1

490 to 460

Back 1

Persian Wars

Front 2

490 p

Back 2

Athenians defeat the Persians at Marathon

Front 3

460 to 430

Back 3

Age of Pericles in Athens

Front 4

Democracy

Back 4

The right of all citizens to political participation, and their acceptance of decisions made by a majority

Front 5

Ultimate power in Athens rested in the

Back 5

Assembly of all adult male citizens. Althought the assembly could draw up laws on its own, ordinarily it discussed proposals put before it by a committee of the Council of Five Hundred (chosen annually by lot to draft the laws and to supervise their administration.) Debates in the Assembly were often spirited. Naturally those with a talent for public speaking enjoyed a great advantage over their fellows.

Front 6

Aristotle justified

Back 6

slavery by arguing that Greeks were superior to non Greeks and that it is good and right for superiors to rule over inferiors. Aristotle said slaves were necessary "instruments" for their superiors; by taking over the dull and heavy tasks, they freed their masters for greater leisure and cultural attainments.

Front 7

What most Athenian males sought was not

Back 7

great weath but leisure: time for talk, for exercises and games in the gymnasium, and for engaging in the affairs of their city.

Front 8

The city itself was the principal

Back 8

school for young and old. Talking in the marketplace, the Assembly and the courts; listening to music and dramas; visiting the temples; and participating in athletic contests- in these ways the male citizen could approach the classical ideal of "a sound mind in a sound body."

Front 9

375bc (c)

Back 9

Plato writes The Republic. Ackerman: "Plato asserted that in making copies of an already imperfect and illusory nature, the painter presented products that were a distraction rather than an aid in man's search for truth."

Front 10

59bc

Back 10

The Roman colony of Florentia is founded by Julius Caesar

Front 11

27bc

Back 11

The Roman senate bestows the title of Augustus on Octavian

Front 12

14 d/p

Back 12

Death of Augustus

Front 13

33 r The Sermon on the Mount

Back 13

The Sermon on the Mount: "Traditionally, one would love a neighbor but hate an enemy. Jesus wants to create a new heart that will love even an enemy" (an early call for tolerance)-RD Guide to the Bible p. 315

Front 14

49 r

Back 14

At the urging of the apostle Paul, a Helenized Jew, the Jerusalem Council decides that gentiles converted to Christianity do not need to conform to Jewish law (Christianity is universal, does not require that its adherents be of a particular race)

Front 15

235 p

Back 15

Between 235 and the beginning of Diocletian's reign in 284, three simultaneous dilemmas, external invasion, internal civil war, and economic collapse, create a "general crisis" in the Roman Empire. This 50-year period, in which the empire was ruled by roughly 25 individuals, is seen as the watershed separating the classical world and the early medieval world, or world of late antiquity

Front 16

270 (c) r

Back 16

St. Anthony Abott of Alexandria flees from the worldly life into the desert, where he battles against sexual desire. His solitary life of prayer and severe physical discipline was frequently rewarded, we are told, by divine visions. Multitudes follow his example.

Front 17

293 p

Back 17

In an attempt to restore order to the destabilized Roman Empire, Diocletian establishes the tetrarchy (rule by four) and adopts the title of Augustus of the East

Front 18

304 p

Back 18

Diocletian initiates a violent seven-year campaign of persecution against the Christians, who he believed were undermining his efforts to win back for the empire the favor of the Gods

Front 19

313 r

Back 19

Recently converted to Christianity, Constantine issues the Edict of Milan, establishing official tollerance of Christianity

Front 20

315 a What impact did the general crisis of the third century have on the visual arts?

Back 20

"What impact did the general crisis of the third century have on the visual arts? The Arch of Constantine: The figures in the Constantinian reliefs are squat in proportion and reminicent of the four tetrachs. They do not move according to any classical principle of naturalistic movement, but rather with the mechanical and repeated stances and gestures of puppets. The relief is very shallow, the forms are no longer fully modeled, and the details are incised. One need only compare this Constantinian relief with a Byzantine icon to see that the new compositional principles are those of the middle ages. -Gardner's

Front 21

330 p

Back 21

Constantinople becomes the capital of the Roman Empire

Front 22

374 r

Back 22

The Italian Ambrose becomes Bishop of Milan one week after his baptism into the Christian faith

Front 23

381 p/r

Back 23

Ecumenical council in Constantinople led by the emperor Theodosius I denounces the Arian heresy, which denied that Jesus shared God the Father's divinity

Front 24

The four doctors of the Roman Catholic Church:

Back 24

Ambrose, Augustine, Jerome, and Gregory the Great

Front 25

Ambrose: Made bishop of...

Back 25

"Made Bishop of Milan during the conflict between the Arians and Christians, forced Theodosius I to do public penance for the massacre of the citizens of Thessalonica in Greece. Attributes: Bishop's robes, curved staff called a crozier, bees

Front 26

Augustine

Back 26

Born in North Africa (Algeria) Attributes: Bishop's robes, crosier and mitre (hat), child with seashell; pierced, broken, or flaming heart

Front 27

Jerome

Back 27

Born in Dalmatia (modern Croatia, eastern coast of the Adriatic sea) depicted as a hermit with a long beard, seminude, beating his chest with a rock before the crucifix. Attributes: lion, skull (symbol of vanity), book, cardinal's hat

Front 28

Gregory the Great: Born in... Depicted in...

Back 28

Born in Rome around 540. Depicted in papal vestment, tiara. Chief iconographic attribute is the dove speaking in Gregory's ear, the Holy Spirit dictating his homilies on Ezechiel

Front 29

387 (c) r

Back 29

Augustine, Algerian author of the Confessions and The City of God, converts to Christianity and is baptised by Ambrose, Bishop of Milan

Front 30

391 r

Back 30

Theodosius I makes Christianity the state religion and outlaws pagan worship

Front 31

400 (c) r

Back 31

The ascetic philologist Jerome translates the bible into Latin from the Greek and Hebrew sources

Front 32

410 p

Back 32

Rome sacked by the barbarian Visigoths

Front 33

451 p

Back 33

Attila the Hun's army defeated in Gaul by an alliance of Romans and barbarians. Over the course of a century, pressure from the east by the Huns had pushed barbiarian tribes into conflict with Rome

Front 34

455 p

Back 34

Rome sacked by the Vandal army. Spain has fallen, Gaul has been abandoned, and North Africa is in the hands of the Vandals

Front 35

480 (c) b/r

Back 35

"Benedict of Norcia (Umbria), the founder of Western monasticism born (dies 547) "For the monks, he was their holy founder; for the world at large, he was a civilizing influence. It was his Benedictine monks who copied (and so preserved) the ancient classics, who cultivated the wild countryside, and who showed all people an example of orderly and contented living" -Sister Wendy's Book of Saints

Front 36

529 (c) r

Back 36

Benedict founds the monastery at Monte Cassino. The Benedictine Rule governs the lives of the monks, balancing solitary meditation and group activities

Front 37

537 a

Back 37

Hagia Sophia completed in Constantinople under the Emperor Justinian

Front 38

590 r

Back 38

Gregory the Great becomes Bishop of Rome, by then called "pope." Wrote that “paintings can do for the illiterate what writing does for those who can read.” Gregory founded many monasteries and vigorously promoted missionary activity, most importantly in England, where the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons was accomplished by Bishop Augustine of Canterbury. As Benedict had justified the absolute authority of the abbot over the souls in his charge, so Gregory expressed the hieratic principle that he was responsible directly to God for his ministry.

Front 39

598 (c) p

Back 39

The Lombards, a Germanic tribe from Hungary, gain control over northern Italy after signing a truce with the emperor, who retains control over central and southern Italy

Front 40

632 d/r

Back 40

Death of Mohammad

Front 41

670 p/r

Back 41

The empire of Islam extends from Tunisia to Afghanistan

Front 42

714 p/r

Back 42

Spain is conquered by the Muslims in just three years. Religious freedom is granted to both Christians and Jews

Front 43

732 p/r

Back 43

The Frankish general, Charles Martel, defeats the Arab forces at Poities in Gaul, haulting Arab expansion in Europe

Front 44

800 p

Back 44

Charlemagne crowned emperor on Christmas day in Rome

Front 45

910 r

Back 45

The Cluniac order is founded at Cluny, France. It was the leading reform movement in the Middle Ages, and had close ties to the Ottonian rulers and to the papacy

Front 46

As heirs to the Lombards...

Back 46

As heirs to the Lombards, and in Charlemagne's eyes to the Roman Empire itself, Charlemagne and his successors claimed sovreignty over northern Italy, and so technically Florence was under Imperial control.

Front 47

However...

Back 47

However, with the emperors based far north of the Alps, it was the Papacy that exercised more immediate influence over the Italian cities. For centuries rivalry between popes and emperors formed the backdrop to Italian politics, a rivalry based in theory on the question of who was the legitimate inheritor of the Western Roman Empire.

Front 48

1016 p

Back 48

The Normans arrive in Italy from Northern France; between 1071 and 1091 they take Bari and Sicily, evicting the Arabs who had possessed the island

Front 49

1018 a

Back 49

Construction begun on San Miniato al Monte, completed in 1207

Front 50

1066 p

Back 50

The French Normans under William the Conqueror, duke of Normandy, invade England and defeat King Harold at the Battle of Hastings

Front 51

1084 r St. Bruno founds the...

Back 51

Saint Bruno founds the Carthusian order in the Cartreuse Valley in the French Alps, based on an eremetic life of silence, prayer, and austerity. A Carthusian monastery is called a charterhouse, certosa in Italian

Front 52

1086 p

Back 52

Domesday survey in England, first full census of a population, for taxation purposes

Front 53

1096 p/r

Back 53

"The First Crusade called by Urban II to retake the Holy Land from the Muslims for Christianity. A disorganized mass of mostly French, Norman, and Flemish nobles and pesants, 30,000 or more, leaves Europe for Palastine in several waves; an estimated 12,000 are killed in Asia Minor; 1097-99, the crusading forces take Nicea, Antioch, and Jerusalem, which they sack. The crusades generated huge profits for the maritime cities of Italy, and brought the west into contact with the more sophisticated cities of the east

Front 54

1098 r

Back 54

The Cistercian order founded at Citreaux in France with the objective of reforming the Benedictine order and reasserting its original ideals of a life of severe simplicity

Front 55

beginning in the 11th century

Back 55

"The slow revival of Mediterranean trade and the expansion of urban and commercial life, creates a class of merchants who sought social mobility and status based on wealth. The result was the emergence of the communes and hostility between a mercantile class that demanded legal and political systems conducive to commerce, and the churchmen, princes, and nobles who derived their power from the feudal order

Front 56

1115 p

Back 56

Matilda, Countess of Tuscia, gives Florence its independence

Front 57

1115 (c) r

Back 57

St. Bernard heads the ascetic Cistercian order at the abbey of Claivaux, in Northern France

Front 58

1122 r

Back 58

Suger becomes abbot of St.-Denis, near Paris, and advisor to kings Louis VI and Louis VII

Front 59

1176 p

Back 59

The Lombard League of city-states defeats the German Emperor Frederik Barbarossa at the Battle of Legnano. Imperial control over the Italian peninsula is greatly reduced by early 1300s

Front 60

1187 p

Back 60

Saladin recaptures Jerusalem for Islam

Front 61

1200-1300

Back 61

Population of Florence increases from 50,000 to 100,000 in response to demand for labor in the wool processing industry

Front 62

1204 p

Back 62

The Fourth Crusade, the Venitians sack Constantinople, leading to territorial gains for the Venitian Republic in the Adriatic

Front 63

1209 a

Back 63

Work begun on the mosaic pavement in the Florence baptistry, contemporary with the pavement of San Miniato

Front 64

1209 (c) r

Back 64

Francis of Assisi founds the Franciscan order, emphasizing poverty, charity and love. The Franciscans were originally mystics with little use for books or education

Front 65

1209 II (c) r

Back 65

Francis leads his first 11 followers to Rome to seek permission from Innocent III to found a new religious order. The Pope refuses, but the following night in a dream he sees the church falling apart and a poor man appearing to hold it up. The next day he changes his verdict and grants his approval of the order

Front 66

1215 r

Back 66

The Fourth Lateran Council codifies major aspects of Church doctrine, deliniating for the first time the seven sacraments, the doctrine of transubstantiation, the practice of confession, and the worship of relics

Front 67

1215 p

Back 67

King John of England signs Magna Carta "the king's will must be bound by law"

Front 68

1223 r

Back 68

St. Francis establishes the first nativity scene at Greccio

Front 69

1225 l

Back 69

St. Francis composes the Canticle of the Sun

Front 70

1225 b/scholarship

Back 70

St. Thomas Aquinas born (dies 1274)

Front 71

1228 r

Back 71

Cannonization of St. Francis

Front 72

1228 a

Back 72

Construction begun on the upper church of San Francesco in Assisi

Front 73

1234 r

Back 73

"Cannonization of St. Dominic, who founded a religious order of highly trained, scholarly preachers dedicated to the eradication of heresy, especially the Cathars in southern France. The Dominicans were the administrators of the Church's new tool for combating heretics: the Inquisition

Front 74

1235 a

Back 74

Bonaventura Berlinghieri's St. Francis Altarpiece

Front 75

1252 business

Back 75

First minting of the gold florin, to become the most stable and widespread currency in Europe, responds to the increasing need for reliable coinage for long-distance trade

Front 76

1255 a

Back 76

Construction begun on the Palazzo del Capitano del Popolo, after 1574 called the Bargello, seat of the Capitano del Popolo (police chief)

Front 77

1260 a

Back 77

Cathedral of Siena completed

Front 78

1262 l

Back 78

Bonaventura commissioned to write the Legenda Maiora (Life of St. Francis) Like all the great scholastic doctors he starts with the discussion of the relations between reason and faith. All the sciences are but the handmaids of theology; reason can discover some of the moral truths which form the groundwork of the Christian system, but others it can only receive and apprehend through divine illumination. In order to obtain this illumination, the soul must employ the proper means, which are prayer, the exercise of the virtues, whereby it is rendered fit to accept the divine light, and meditation which may rise even to ecstatic union with God. The supreme end of life is such union, union in contemplation or intellect and in intense absorbing love; but it cannot be entirely reached in this life, and remains as a hope for the next life. The mind in contemplating God has three stages or grades—the senses, giving empirical knowledge of what is without and discerning the traces (vestigia) of the divine in the world; the reason, which examines the soul itself, the image of the divine Being; and lastly, pure intellect (intelligentia), which, in a transcendent act, grasps the Being of the divine cause.

Front 79

1265 p

Back 79

Charles of Anjou claims the kingdom of Naples

Front 80

1265 b

Back 80

Dante Aleghieri born (dies 1321) His Comedia is a grand synthesis of medieval theology, science, philosophy, and romance, in which Dante makes sharp judgements on historical and mythological personalities

Front 81

1265 a

Back 81

Operai of Siena Cathedral commission pulpit from Nicola Pisano

Front 82

1266 a

Back 82

The Venitians enlage and pave Piazza St. Marco

Front 83

Venice functioned as a

Back 83

cultural and economic conduit between the west and the east

Front 84

1267 (c)

Back 84

Giotto born (dies c. 1337)

Front 85

1274 d/scholar

Back 85

"St. Thomas Aquinas dies. (born 1225) The constant theme of Aquina's writings was the reconciliation of faith and experience: "nature complements grace." His Summa Theologica, a founding text of Catholic teaching, examines the relationship between faith and intellect, religion and society. "It is impossible that those things which are of philosophy can be contrary to those things which are of faith"

Front 86

1278 a

Back 86

Construction begun on Santa Maria Novella

Front 87

1280 (c) a

Back 87

Cimabue's Maesta' from Santa Trinita

Front 88

1285 a

Back 88

Ducio's Madonna Rucellai from Santa Maria Novella

Front 89

1290(c.) a

Back 89

Last Judgement commissioned for Santa Cecilia in Trastevere from Pietro Cavallini

Front 90

1293 p+

Back 90

Florentine Ordinances of Justice exclude nobles from politics and require that the eight priors be members of one of the leading guilds, thus tying the government of the city to its commercial interests

Front 91

The major guilds: the Lana

Back 91

Wool manufacturers

Front 92

Calimala

Back 92

Importers of cloth (to be reworked or redyed in the city)

Front 93

Cambio

Back 93

bankers

Front 94

Por Santa Maria

Back 94

Silk weavers

Front 95

1295 p

Back 95

The Visconti assume power in Milan, ending a long period of civil strife

Front 96

1296 a

Back 96

Construction begun on the Cathedral of Florence by Arnolfo di Cambio

Front 97

1297 p

Back 97

Closing of the Great Council in Venice, the Serrata closes and defines membership in the governing noble class

Front 98

1298 m

Back 98

Venetian Marco Polo records the story of his travels in the Far East

Front 99

1299 a

Back 99

Construction begun on the Palazzo della Signoria in Florence by Arnolfo di Cambio

Front 100

1200-1300

Back 100

Population of Florence increases from 50,000 to 100,000 in response to demand for labor in the wool processing industry

Front 101

By 1300, Florentine family firms such as... the banks were the instrument by which...

Back 101

Florentine family firms such as those of the Bardi and Peruzzi were the richest of the continent. The banks were the instrument by which cash was moved from one place to another in Europe

Front 102

1300 r

Back 102

The first jubilee year announced by Pope Boniface VIII

Front 103

1302 p

Back 103

Dante banished from Florence

Front 104

1302 a

Back 104

Enrico Scrovegni commissions Giotto to fresco the Arena Chapel in Padua

Front 105

1304 b The first great proponent of...

Back 105

Francesco Petrarca born (dies 1374) The first great proponent of classical letters and the classical ideal, he rediscovered Latin as written and spoken by major classical authors such as Cicero and Virgil

Front 106

1308 l

Back 106

Dante begins the Divine Comedy in Ravenna. The work is a grand synthesis of medieval theology, science, philosophy, and romance, in which Dante makes sharp judgements on historical and mythological personalities

Front 107

1308 a

Back 107

Operai of Siena Cathedral commissions Maesta from Duccio

Front 108

1309 r

Back 108

Pope Clement V takes up residence in Avignon

Front 109

1310 p

Back 109

Bajamonte Tiepolo revolt, subdued when the standard bearer of the young patricians was hit in the head and knocked of his horse by a roof tile thrown by an old woman.

Front 110

Venice:

Back 110

shipbuilding (the Arsenal), glass working (Murano), scuole (social organizations open to all)

Front 111

1313 b

Back 111

Giovanni Boccaccio born (dies 1375)

Front 112

1315 p/Venice

Back 112

Council of Ten established in Venice, made up of the most powerful patricians and possessing unlimited extra constitutional powers

Front 113

1320 a

Back 113

Giotto begins to fresco the Bardi and Peruzzi chaples in Santa Croce

Front 114

1321 d His Comedia is...

Back 114

Dante Aleghieri dies (born 1265) His Comedia is a grand synthesis of medieval theology, science, philosophy, and romance, in which Dante makes sharp judgements on historical and mythological personalities

Front 115

1325 p

Back 115

In Florence the Signoria is given to Charles of Calabria, brother of King Robert of Naples

Front 116

1327 l

Back 116

Petrarch sees Laura in a church in Avignon

Front 117

1329 a

Back 117

Simone Martini begins his Annunciation

Front 118

1330 a

Back 118

Arte del Calimala commissions bronze doors for the Florence Baptistry from Andrea Pisano

Front 119

1330(c.) a

Back 119

Azzone Visconti builds palace complex at San Gottardo, Milan

Front 120

1330(c.) l

Back 120

Azzone Visconti's court advisor, Dominican friar Galvano Fiamma, revives the Aristotelian notion of magnificence

Front 121

1330 a

Back 121

Taddeo Gaddi begins frescos in the refectory of Santa Croce

Front 122

1331 b He wove the republican language of...

Back 122

Coluccio di Piero Salutati born (dies 1406), who "wove the republican language of ancient Rome, its sense of moral purpose and suspicion of tyranny, into an ideology of Florentine republicanism"

Front 123

1337 (c) d/a

Back 123

"Death of Giotto (born c. 1267) "Whereas Byzantine and medieval religious art aimed always to take the gaze of human devotion up and away from the sordid parenthesis of earthly life to an unchanging and golden eternity where emotion and descriptive reality had no place, suddenly, with Giotto, the direction was being reversed, and the scenes of spiritual life were being brought down to the level of human reality, put into an earthly setting, given physical depth and weight, and imbued with human feeling (pathos). In other words, instead of striving to raise human devotion to the level of the sacred, the sacred was brought down to the level of the human." -Nigel McGilchrist, from the Blue Guide

Front 124

1337 a

Back 124

"Construction begun on Orsanmichele by Francesco Talenti, one of the architects of the Duomo. Originaly built as an open loggia to serve as a grain market, a few decades later it assumed the role of the official church of the corporation of the guilds. The second floor was added after the plague of 1348 as a granary to protect against famine

Front 125

1338 a

Back 125

Ambrogio Lorenzetti begins to fresco the Sala della Pace in Palazzo Pubblico, Siena

Front 126

1339 p

Back 126

Beginning of the Hundred Years War

Front 127

1341 l

Back 127

Petrarch crowned poet laureate in Rome, the first man since antiquity to be given this honor

Front 128

1342 p

Back 128

Walter of Brienne, Duke of Athens, given control of Florence; the despot is removed by an insurrection the followng year

Front 129

1345 m

Back 129

Current Ponte Vecchio built to replace a bridge destroyed by flood a decade earlier

Front 130

1346 buisness

Back 130

Bankruptcy of Bardi and Peruzzi banks when King Edward III of England defaults on his loans

Front 131

1347 p

Back 131

Cola di Rienzo takes control of Rome

Front 132

1348 m+

Back 132

The Black Death appears in Italy, killing perhaps half of the population of Florence; wealth is consolidated among the survivors

Front 133

1348 d

Back 133

Petrarch's Laura dies by the plague

Front 134

1351 l

Back 134

Boccaccio completes the Decameron

Front 135

1351 b

Back 135

Giangaleazzo Visconti born (dies 1402)

Front 136

1353 a

Back 136

Coats of arms painted underneath the balustrade of the Palazzo della Signoria

Front 137

The coats of arms of Palazzo della Signoria: red cross on white background

Back 137

Capitano del Popolo

Front 138

The coats of arms of Palazzo della Signoria: red lilly on a white field

Back 138

Guelf Florence, the present-day symbol of the city

Front 139

The coats of arms of Palazzo della Signoria: white and red halves

Back 139

The Fiesole-Florence community

Front 140

The coats of arms of Palazzo della Signoria: gold key on red field

Back 140

Papal insignia

Front 141

The coats of arms of Palazzo della Signoria: libertas in gold against a blue background

Back 141

The Signoria (Priors)

Front 142

The coats of arms of Palazzo della Signoria: red eagle clasping a green dragon

Back 142

The Guelf Party

Front 143

The coats of arms of Palazzo della Signoria: white lilly on a red field

Back 143

Ghibelline Florence

Front 144

The coats of arms of Palazzo della Signoria: gold French lillys on blue (last two)

Back 144

Charles and Robert of Anjou

Front 145

1355 p

Back 145

The Nine fall from power in Siena

Front 146

1355 a/l

Back 146

The Sienese painter's guild describes the painter's task to its members as "the exposition of sacred writ to the ignorant who know not how to read."

Front 147

1359 a

Back 147

Andrea di Cione (Orcagna) completes the tabernacle for Orsanmichele, the dome of which echos the design of the dome for the duomo

Front 148

1360 b/buisness

Back 148

Giovanni di Bicci born (dies 1429)

Front 149

1368 r

Back 149

St. Catherine of Siena experiences a mystical marriage with Christ

Front 150

1370 b Scholar who rewrote... he coined the term... this initiated the trend toward...

Back 150

"Leonardo Bruni born (dies 1444), he rewrote the history of Florence to make it appear as one long story of resistance to tyranny. He coined the term "middle ages" and identified the period as barbaric, or "Gothic." This initiated the trend toward measuring and evaluating history in terms of human achievement rather than God's divine plan for humanity

Front 151

1374 d The first great...

Back 151

Petrarch dies (born 1304) The first great proponent of classical letters and the classical ideal, he rediscovered Latin as written and spoken by major classical authors such as Cicero and Virgil

Front 152

By humanism we mean...

Back 152

merely the general tendency of the age to attach the greatest importance to classical studies, and to consider classical antiquity as the common standard and model by which to guide all cultural activities." -P.O. Kristeller

Front 153

The Renaissance was the first...

Back 153

was the first period in history to be aware of its own existance and to coin a label for itself

Front 154

1375 p

Back 154

Coluccio Salutati chosen chancellor of Florence

Front 155

1375 d

Back 155

Giovanni Boccaccio dies (born 1313)

Front 156

1376 a

Back 156

"Loggia della Signoria commissioned as a reception area for visiting dignitaries and the public swearing-in of city officials. Also known as the Loggia dei Lanzi after the bodyguards of Cosimo I who were stationed here. Probably designed by Orcagna, executed by Simone Talenti (son of Francesco) with the help of Benci di Cione (Orcagna's brother)

Front 157

1377 b/a

Back 157

Filippo Brunelleschi born (dies 1446)

Front 158

1377 r

Back 158

The papacy retuns to Rome from Avignon

Front 159

1378 r

Back 159

The Great Schism begins

Front 160

1378 p

Back 160

The Ciompi Revolt in Florence, government temporarily overthrown by wool workers

Front 161

1378 b

Back 161

Lorenzo Ghiberti born (dies 1455)

Front 162

1379 l

Back 162

Publication of Petrarch's Famous Men

Front 163

1380-81 p

Back 163

War of Chioggia (key-oggia); Venice defeats Genoa and embarks on mainland expansion, creating a new rivalry with Milan

Front 164

1385 p

Back 164

After murdering his ruthless uncle Bernabo', Giangaleazzo Visconti seizes power in Milan, unites the rule of Milan and PAVIA

Front 165

1386 (c.) b/a

Back 165

Donatello born (dies 1466)

Front 166

1387 l

Back 166

Chaucer begins the Canterbury Tales, in which a group of people exchange stories as they ride on a pilgrimage to the shrine of the revered saint, Thomas Becket, at Canterbury.

Front 167

1389 b/p

Back 167

Cosimo de' Medici ("Il Vecchio") born (dies1464)

Front 168

1395 p

Back 168

Giangaleazzo Visconti buys the title of Duke of Milan from the Emperor

Front 169

Milan was

Back 169

an intermediary between northern europe and the Italian peninsula

Front 170

1396 scholarship

Back 170

The Florentines (Coluccio Salutati) invite the Byzantine scholar Manuel Chrysoloras to revive the study of Greek in Italy

Front 171

1397 buisness

Back 171

Giovanni di Bicci (Cosimo's father) founds the Medici bank in Florence with a branch in Rome

Front 172

By the 15th century, a combination of...

Back 172

By the 15th century, a combination of wealth, intense civic pride, and commitment to the glorification of Florence through patronage made the city the intellectual and artistic capital of Italy. Partronage flowed through many channels: the city itself, its guilds, the Church and wealthy individuals. COMPETITION between patrons for artists and between artists for patrons helped liberate architecture, painting, sculpture, and a host of minor crafts from conventional themes.

Front 173

The classical world, revived and...

Back 173

The classical world, revived and brought into the core of Florentine republican ideology, must have provided its own inspiration as a pinnacle of excellence, which, alone among its rivals, the city might meet. Florence not only absorbed the achievements of the classical past; it transformed them into something radically new.

Front 174

1401 a

Back 174

Competition for the Baptistry doors, Florence

Front 175

1401 b/p

Back 175

Condottiere Francesco Sforza born (dies 1466)

Front 176

1402 d/pp

Back 176

Giangaleazzo Visconti dies, Milan's seige ("assedio") of Florence is lifted, his empire in northern Italy crumbles

Front 177

1404 b/a

Back 177

Leon Battista Alberti born (dies 1472)

Front 178

1406 d/p "He wove...

Back 178

Coluccio Salutati dies (born 1331) He wove the republican language of ancient Rome, its sense of moral purpose and suspicion of tyranny, into an ideology of Florentine republicanism

Front 179

In Florence's fluid society,

Back 179

"where there were no fixed legal definitions of rank or nobility, the status conferred by a classical (humanist) education came to be prized with remarkable rapidity and zeal by the city's elite. Humanist learning and erudition thus served an immediate social function

Front 180

1406 p/Florence

Back 180

Florence conquers Pisa, gaining an outlet to the sea

Front 181

1406 p

Back 181

Venetians gain control of Padua

Front 182

1407 b/scholar

Back 182

Birth of Lorenzo Valla (dies 1460) master of Latin grammar who committed himself to a violent polemic against the temporal power of Rome. As a philologist, he attacked the Latin of Jerome's Vulgate Bible and argued that the Apostle's Creed had not been composed by the Apostles

Front 183

1408 a

Back 183

Nanni di Banco and Donatello begin statuary for the Opera del Duomo, followed by statuary for Orsanmichele

Front 184

1409 p

Back 184

King Ladislas of Naples gains control of Rome and the Papal States

Front 185

1409 r

Back 185

Council of Pisa

Front 186

1410 scholarship

Back 186

Rediscovery of Ptolemy's Geography

Front 187

1410 r

Back 187

Baldassare Cossa elected Pope Giovanni XXIII

Front 188

1412 p Milan

Back 188

Sadistic tyrant (and dog-lover) Giovanni Maria Visconti murdered; succeeded by his cultured, talented, paranoid, obese, reclusive brother Filippo Maria

Front 189

1414 a

Back 189

Lorenzo Monaco's Coronation of the Virgin for Santa Maria degli Angeli

Front 190

1414-18 r

Back 190

Council of Constance deposes competing Popes and elects Pope Martin V, ending the Great Schism

Front 191

1418 a

Back 191

Brunelleschi commissioned to raise the dome on the cathedral in Florence

Front 192

1419 a

Back 192

Completion of Jacapo della Quercia's Fonte Gaia in Siena

Front 193

1420 d/r+

Back 193

Death of Baldassare Cossa; his tomb is commissioned in 1424 by Giovanni di Bicci from Donatello and Michelozzo

Front 194

1420 business

Back 194

Giovanni di Bicci retires, leaving the bank to his son Cosimo

Front 195

1421 a

Back 195

Marino Contarini oversees construction and decoration of his family home, the Ca' d'oro, in Venice

Front 196

1421 a Florence

Back 196

Construction begun on Brunelleschi's ospedale degli innocenti

Front 197

1422 b/p

Back 197

Federico da Montefeltro born (dies 1482)

Front 198

1423 a

Back 198

Gentile da Fabriano's Addoration of the Magi for the Strozzi Chapel in Santa Trinita

Front 199

1424(c.) a

Back 199

"Felice Brancacci commissions Masaccio and Masolino to fresco the family chapel in Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence. From Brunelleschi Masaccio acquired a knowledge of mathematical proportion that was crucial to his revival of the principles of scientific perspective. From Donatello he imbibed a knowledge of classical art that led him away from the prevailing Gothic style. He inaugurated a new naturalistic approach to painting that was concerned less with details and ornamentation than with simplicity and unity, less with flat surfaces than with the illusion of three dimensionality. Together with Brunelleschi and Donatello, he was a founder of the Renaissance

Front 200

1425 p

Back 200

'Monte delle doti' (state dower fund) established in Florence

Front 201

1427 p

Back 201

Florentine 'catasto' (tax on income and wealth)

Front 202

1427 p/Florence

Back 202

Leonardo Bruni chosen chancellor of Florence

Front 203

1429 d

Back 203

Giovanni di Bicci dies (born 1360)

Front 204

1431 d/r I

Back 204

Joan of Arc burned at the stake

Front 205

1431 d/r II

Back 205

Pope Martin V dies

Front 206

1431 b/a x2

Back 206

Birth of Andrea Mantegna (dies 1506) and his future brother-in-law, Giovanni Bellini (dies 1516)

Front 207

1432 p

Back 207

Battle of San Romano between the Florentines, led by condottiere Niccolo' da Tolentino, and the Sienese, led by Francesco Piccinino

Front 208

1433 p

Back 208

The Medici are exiled from Florence

Front 209

1433 b/scholar

Back 209

Platonist philosopher Marsilio Ficino Born (dies 1499) Ficino was commissioned by Cosimo to translate all of Plato into Latin, and was Lorenzo Il Magnifico's tutor

Front 210

1434 p

Back 210

Cosimo de' Medici returns from exile

Front 211

1435 buisness

Back 211

Giovanni Benci becomes director of the Medici holding

Front 212

1436 a I

Back 212

Completion of the dome of the cathedral in Florence

Front 213

1436 a II

Back 213

Restoration of the convent of San Marco financed and directed by Cosimo de' Medici

Front 214

1436 r

Back 214

Pope Eugenius IV crowned

Front 215

1437 buisness

Back 215

Christians in Florence banned from all moneylending practices

Front 216

1438 r

Back 216

Ecumenical conference ("concilio generale") between leaders of the Byzantine and Roman Churches, under the auspices of Eugene IV in Florence

Front 217

1440 a

Back 217

Completion of Donatello's cantoria; Luca della Robbia's completed two years earlier

Front 218

1440 scholarship

Back 218

Lorenzo Valla publishes his essay proving the Donation of Constantine a forgery. The document was purportedly a deed to control over the Western Roman Empire given to Pope Sylvester by Constantine when the pope cured him of leprosy

Front 219

1440 scholarship/Florence

Back 219

Cosimo de Medici establishes the Platonic Academy, later to be headed by Marsilio Ficino

Front 220

1442 p

Back 220

House of Aragon takes control of Naples

Front 221

1443 b/r

Back 221

Giuliano della Rovere, future Pope Julius II born (dies 1513)

Front 222

1444 d/scholar

Back 222

Leonardo Bruni dies (born 1370), he rewrote the history of Florence to make it appear as one long story of resistance to tyranny. He coined the term "middle ages" and identified the period as barbaric, or "Gothic." This initiated the trend toward measuring and evaluating history in terms of human achievement rather than God's divine plan for humanity. In his History of Florence he wrote, "It is marvelous to see how powerful access to public office proves to be in awakening the talents of the citizens. For where men are given the hope for attaining honor within the state, they take courage and raise themselves to a higher plane... and since such hope and opportunity are held out in our commonwealth, we need not be surprised that talent and industry distinguish themselves to the highest degree."

Front 223

1444 p

Back 223

Federico da Montefeltro becomes Duke of Urbino

Front 224

1444 a/Florence

Back 224

Work begins on the Medici palace

Front 225

1444 b/a

Back 225

Bramante born (dies 1514)

Front 226

1445 b/a

Back 226

Botticelli born (dies 1510)

Front 227

1446 d/a

Back 227

Brunelleschi dies (born 1377)

Front 228

1447 d/p Milan

Back 228

Fillipo Maria Visconti dies, Establishment of the Ambrosian Republic in Milan (named after St. Ambrose)

Front 229

1447 r

Back 229

Tommaso Parentucelli elected Pope Nicholas V

Front 230

1447 a+

Back 230

Filippo Lippi's Coronation of the Virgin for Sant' Ambrogio "Whatever the ideals of spiritual perfection may have meant to artists in past centuries, those ideals are now realized in terms of the sensuous beauty of this world" -Gardner's

Front 231

1448 b

Back 231

Lorenzo de' Medici, "the Magnificent," born (dies 1492)

Front 232

1450 p/Milan

Back 232

Francesco Sforza conquers Milan with the help of Cosimo de' Medici

Front 233

1452 a

Back 233

Completion of Lorenzo Ghiberti's "Gates of Paradise"

Front 234

1452 b/a

Back 234

Leonardo da Vinci born (dies 1519)

Front 235

1452 b/r

Back 235

Girolamo Savonarola born (dies 1498)

Front 236

1453 p

Back 236

"Fall of Constantinople to the Turks, end of the Byzantine Empire, beginning of continual warfare between Venice and the Turks; Venice changes focus from Mediteranean trade to expansion on the mainland, threatening the Papal States to the south and the Empire to the north. Many Greek scholars flee to Italy, bringing with them knowledge of ancient Greece to feed the avid interest in Classical art, literature, and philosophy

Front 237

1453 a

Back 237

Completion of Donatello's equestian monument to Erasmo da Narni (Gatamelata) in Padua

Front 238

1454 p/Italy

Back 238

Peace of Lodi between Florence, Venice, Milan, Naples and the Papal States

Front 239

1454 b/scholar

Back 239

Poet Angelo Poliziano born (dies 1494)

Front 240

1455 literature

Back 240

Appearance of the first true printed book in Europe, the Gutenberg Bible. Printing would stimulate a huge demand for literacy and therefore education. "No single change marks so clearly the end of one era and the beginning of another." -J.M. Roberts

Front 241

1455 buisness

Back 241

Giovanni Benci, director of the Medici holding, dies and the holding is wound up

Front 242

1455 p/Italy

Back 242

The formation of the Italian League directed against the dynastic ambitions of France and the Aragonese provides forty years of stability in Italy

Front 243

1455 d/a

Back 243

Lorenzo Ghiberti dies (born 1378)

Front 244

1458 p/Florence

Back 244

Government crisis leads to calling of a parlamento and reinforncement of Medici power

Front 245

1459 a

Back 245

Benozzo Gozzoli's Procession of the Magi for the Medici Chapel, Palazzo Medici

Front 246

1460 d/scholar+

Back 246

Death of Lorenzo Valla (born 1407), master of Latin grammar who committed himself to a violent polemic against the temporal power of Rome. As a philologist, he attacked the Latin of Jerome's Vulgate Bible and argued that the Apostle's Creed had not been composed by the Apostles

Front 247

1463 b/scholar

Back 247

Pico della Mirandola born (dies 1494)

Front 248

1464 d/p+

Back 248

Cosimo de' Medici dies (born 1389), he is declared "Pater Patrias," Father of the Fatherland; Piero de' Medici assumes power

Front 249

1465 a

Back 249

Andrea Mantegna begins the fresco cycle in Castel S. Giorgio for the Gonzaga family

Front 250

1465 (c)

Back 250

Leonardo takes up residence in Florence

Front 251

1466 d/a

Back 251

Donatello dies (born c.1386)

Front 252

Donatello's David is...

Back 252

a biblical subject undressed as a pagan classical hero, with a sentuality and frivolity that is alian to both - Charles Freeman

Front 253

1466 d/p+

Back 253

Francesco Sforza dies (born 1401), the first European ruler to follow a foreign policy based on the concept of the balance of power; succeeded by Galleazo Maria

Front 254

1469 b/scholar

Back 254

Niccolo' Machiavelli born (dies 1527)

Front 255

1469 d/buisness/politics

Back 255

Piero de' Medici dies; Lorenzo de' Medici assumes authority

Front 256

1471 r

Back 256

Francesco della Rovere elected Pope Sixtus IV

Front 257

1472 d/scholar

Back 257

"Leon Battista Alberti dies (born 1404) Alberti was the embodyment of the Renaissance artist as theorist and scholar in a period that saw the fusion of scientific, mathematical and artistic endevour. Writing of himself in the third person, Alberti states, "Whatever was done by man with genius and a certain grace, he held to be almost divine"

Front 258

1472 (c) a I

Back 258

Piero della Francesca's portraits of Battista Sforza and Federico da Montefeltro

Front 259

1472 (c) a II

Back 259

Leonardo's Annunciation and work on Verrocchio's Baptism of Christ

Front 260

1474 r

Back 260

At the age of 22, Girolamo Savonarola joins the Dominicans

Front 261

1475 b/r

Back 261

Lorenzo's son, Giovanni de' Medici (future Pope Leo X) born (dies 1521)

Front 262

1475 b/a

Back 262

Michelangelo born (dies 1564)

Front 263

1477 a

Back 263

Construction begins on the Sistine Chapel

Front 264

1477 (c) a

Back 264

Leonardo's portrait of Genevra d' Benci

Front 265

1478 p/Florence

Back 265

Pazzi Conspiracy; death of Lorenzo's brother, Giuliano de' Medici

Front 266

1478 b/r

Back 266

Giulio de' Medici, (future Pope Clement VII) son of Lorenzo's brother Giuliano born (dies 1534)

Front 267

1478 b/l

Back 267

Baldassare Castiglione born (dies 1529)

Front 268

1480 (c) a I

Back 268

Botticelli's Birth of Venus

Front 269

1480 (c) a II

Back 269

Leonardo's St. Jerome

Front 270

1480 m

Back 270

Turks raid Otranto on the Southeast coast of Italy and take 10,000 people as slaves

Front 271

1481 a I

Back 271

Signorelli, Botticelli, Perugino, and Rosselli begin frescos in the Sistine Chapel

Front 272

1481 a II

Back 272

Leonardo moves to the Sforza court in Milan

Front 273

1482 (c) a

Back 273

Leonardo's Adoration of the Magi

Front 274

1482 d/p

Back 274

Federico da Montefeltro dies (born 1422)

Front 275

1483 b/a

Back 275

Raphael born (dies 1520)

Front 276

1485 c. b/a

Back 276

Titian born (dies 1576)

Front 277

1485 a

Back 277

Ghirlandaio's workshop begins to fresco the walls of the Tornabuoni chapel in Santa Maria Novella

Front 278

1486 a

Back 278

Leonardo completes the first version of the Virgin of the Rocks

Front 279

1490 r

Back 279

Savonarola begins his sermons on the apocalypse in the Monastery of San Marco

Front 280

Marsilio Ficino, writing in 1492, proclaimed:

Back 280

This century, like a golden age, has restored to light the liberal arts, which were almost extinct: grammar, poetry, rhetoric, painting, sculpture, architecture, music...this century appears to have perfected astrology."

Front 281

1492 d/p

Back 281

Lorenzo de' Medici, "the Magnificent," dies (born 1448)

Front 282

1492 r

Back 282

Pope Innocent VIII dies Rodrigo Borgia elected Pope Alexander VI. His surname became a byword for the debased standards of the Renaissance papacy

Front 283

1494 d/scholar

Back 283

Angelo Poliziano dies (born 1454)

Front 284

1494 d/scholar

Back 284

Pico della Mirandola dies (born 1463) Through his mastery of languages and his study of Jewish, Babylonian, and Persian records, he broke through the bounds of medieval theology and opened a door to the study of comparative religion and philosophy

Front 285

1494 p

Back 285

Charles VIII of France invades Italy in league with Ludovico "il Moro" Sforza, who hopes a French victory over the Aragonese in Naples will solidify his claim as Duke of Milan

Front 286

The French invasion destroyed the

Back 286

"delicate balance of power between Milan, Venice, Florence, Rome and Naples, turning the peninsula into a battlefield for more than sixty years, introducing new methods of war (including greater emphasis on guns), and forcing the Italians to realize their weakness relative to foreign states, especially France and Spain. -Burke 34

Front 287

1494 buisness/politics/Florence

Back 287

Collapse of the Medici bank, the Medici are expelled from Florence when Piero surrenders Florentine possessions to Charles VIII of France

Front 288

1494 d/p

Back 288

King Ferdinand I of Naples dies

Front 289

1495 p/ Naples

Back 289

Charles VIII of France captures Naples

Front 290

1495 p

Back 290

The League of Venice, organized by Alexander VI, defeats the retreating army of Charles VIII at Fornovo

Front 291

1496 r

Back 291

Pope Alexander VI excommunicates Savonarola

Front 292

1498 a

Back 292

Leonardo completes the Last Supper for Ludovico Sforza in the refectory of Santa Maria delle Grazie

Front 293

1498 d/r

Back 293

Savonarola executed (born 1452)

Front 294

1498 m

Back 294

A Portugese fleet led by Vasco da Gama arrives in Calicut (southern India), having discovered the sea route to India. This marks the end of the era of Mediteranian dominace in European trade

Front 295

1498 p/Florence

Back 295

Machiavelli becomes secretary of the Ten of War, the council responsible for military matters in the Florentine republic established after the expulsion of the Medici in 1494

Front 296

1499 a

Back 296

Michelangelo's Pieta

Front 297

1499 m

Back 297

Under the Spanish flag, Florentine Amerigo Vespucci discovers South America

Front 298

1499 d/scholar

Back 298

Marsilio Ficino dies (born 1433) Ficino was commissioned by Cosimo to translate all of Plato into Latin, and was Lorenzo Il Magnifico's tutor

Front 299

1500 p

Back 299

Louis XII of France conquers Milan

Front 300

1500 a

Back 300

Leonardo draws the Burlington House cartoon and returns to Florence, where he resides for a time with Giovanni Francesco Rustici

Front 301

1500 b

Back 301

Benvenuto Cellini born (dies 1571)

Front 302

tenuous

Back 302

lacking a sound basis, unsubstantiated, as in reasoning

Front 303

1501 r?!

Back 303

Rodrigo Borgia's Banquet of the Chestnuts

Front 304

1502 p/Florence

Back 304

Piero Soderini elected gonfaloniere for life in Florence

Front 305

1503 p

Back 305

The Spanish viceroy takes control of the Kingdom of Naples. Spain will rule Naples for the next two centuries

Front 306

1503 d/r

Back 306

Pope Alexander VI dies

Front 307

1503 r

Back 307

Giuliano della Rovere elected Pope Julius II

Front 308

1504 p

Back 308

Rodrigo Borgia's son Cesare Borgia surrenders to Julius II

Front 309

1504 a/ Florence

Back 309

Michelangelo's David installed in the Piazza della Signoria

Front 310

1505 a

Back 310

Giovanni Bellini's Madona and Child with Saints for San Zaccaria, Venice

Front 311

1506 a I

Back 311

Pope Julius II begins demolition of the original Church of St. Peter; Bramante begins designs for a new Church

Front 312

1506 a II

Back 312

Michelagelo's Doni Tondo

Front 313

1506 a III

Back 313

The Laocoon is unearthed near the Golden House of Nero

Front 314

1506 p/ Florence

Back 314

Machiavelli inaugurates his Citizen Army

Front 315

1506 d/a

Back 315

Andrea Mantegna dies (born 1431)

Front 316

1507 d/p

Back 316

Cesare Borgia ally of the exiled Medici, dies (born 1475)

Front 317

1507 (c) a

Back 317

Leonardo returns to Milan

Front 318

1508 a

Back 318

Raphael called to Rome by Julius II to decorate the papal apartments

Front 319

1508 a

Back 319

Michelangelo commissioned by Pope Julius II to paint the Sistine Chapel ceiling

Front 320

1509 p

Back 320

The League of Cambrai, an alliance led by Julius II between The Papal States, France, Spain and The Holy Roman Empire, defeats Venice

Front 321

1510 d/a

Back 321

Sandro Botticelli dies (born 1445)

Front 322

1511 p

Back 322

The League of Cambrai having disintegrated, the Holy League is formed by Julius II, uniting Venice and the Papal States against France

Front 323

1511 b/p

Back 323

Alessandro de' Medici born (dies 1537)

Front 324

1511 b/a

Back 324

Giorgio Vassari born (dies 1574)

Front 325

1512 a I

Back 325

Michelangelo finishes the Sistine Chapel ceiling

Front 326

The High Renaissance

Back 326

classical form, harmony, and gravitas

Front 327

1512 a II

Back 327

Leonardo's self portrait as an old man

Front 328

1512 p-florence

Back 328

The Medici resume power in Florence (again)

Front 329

1512 p-war

Back 329

France and Venice defeat the combined papal/Spanish powers at Ravenna

Front 330

1513 d/r

Back 330

Pope Julius II dies (born 1443)

Front 331

1513 r

Back 331

Giovanni de' Medici is elected Pope Leo X

Front 332

1513 p/l

Back 332

Niccolo' Machiavelli charged with conspiracy against the Medici; he writes The Prince in exile, dedicated to Lorenzo, Duke of Urbino, son of Lorenzo Il Magnifico

Front 333

1513 a I

Back 333

Leonardo moves to Rome

Front 334

1513 a II

Back 334

Raphael's Galatea for the Villa Farnesina, Rome

Front 335

1514 d/a

Back 335

Donato Bramante dies (born 1444)

Front 336

1515 d/p+

Back 336

Death of Louis XII, Francis I succeeds him

Front 337

1516 p

Back 337

Charles V becomes king of Spain, Naples, and Sicily

Front 338

1516 d/a

Back 338

Giovanni Bellini dies (born 1431)

Front 339

1516 a

Back 339

Leonardo completes the St. John painting and takes up residence at the court of Francis I

Front 340

1517 a

Back 340

Andrea del Sarto's Madonna of the Harpies for San Francesco, Florence

Front 341

1517 r

Back 341

Martin Luther publishes the Ninety-five Theses against papal indulgences

Front 342

1518 a I

Back 342

Raphael's Transfiguration commissioned by Giulio de' Medici for Narbonne Cathedral

Front 343

1518 a II

Back 343

Titian's Assumption of the Virgin for Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari, Venice, and the Bacchanal, the last in a series painted for Alfonso d'Este, Duke of Ferrara

Front 344

1519 a

Back 344

Michelangelo begins work on the New Sacristy in San Lorenzo

Front 345

1519 p-Florence

Back 345

Giulio de' Medici assumes power in Florence

Front 346

1519 d/a

Back 346

Leonardo da Vinci dies (born 1452)

Front 347

1519 b/p

Back 347

Birth of Cosimo I de' Medici (dies 1574)

Front 348

1520 l

Back 348

Machiavelli begins his History of Florence

Front 349

1520 d/a

Back 349

Raphael dies (born 1483)

Front 350

1521 r

Back 350

Pope Leo X excommunicates Martin Luther

Front 351

1521 d/r

Back 351

Pope Leo X dies (born 1475)

Front 352

1522 r

Back 352

Adrian Dedel of Utrecht elected Pope Adrian VI and dies the following year

Front 353

1523 r

Back 353

Giulio de' Medici elected Pope Clement VII

Front 354

1524 a

Back 354

Marcantonio Raimondi imprisoned by Clement VII for the publication of I Modi, all copies are destroyed

Front 355

1524 p

Back 355

France captures Milan

Front 356

1525 a

Back 356

Correggio's Assumption of the Virgin for the duomo of Parma anticipates the baroque style of dramatically illusionistic ceiling painting

Front 357

1525 p

Back 357

Battle of Pavia; Francis I of France imprisoned

Front 358

1526 a

Back 358

Titian completes the Pesaro altarpiece for Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari

Front 359

1527 a

Back 359

second edition of I Modii is published with sonnets by Pietro Aretino

Front 360

sonnet

Back 360

By the thirteenth century the term had come to signify a poem of fourteen lines that follows a strict rhyme scheme and specific structure.

Front 361

1527 m

Back 361

Sack of Rome by Charles V's German mercenaries

Front 362

1527 a

Back 362

Rosso Fiorentino's Dead Christ, influenced by Michelangelo's Pieta'

Front 363

1527 p-Florence

Back 363

Medici expelled from Florence (again)

Front 364

1527 d/scholar

Back 364

Niccolo' Machiavelli dies (born 1469)

Front 365

1528 a

Back 365

Jacopo Pontormo's Deposition/Entombment for the Capponi Chapel, Santa Felicita'

Front 366

1528 l

Back 366

Baldassare Castiglione permits printing of The Courtier

Front 367

sprezzatura

Back 367

Coined by Castiglione in Il Cortegiano for "the courtly grace revealed in the effortless resolution of all difficulties" Shearman, 21

Front 368

1529 d/l

Back 368

Baldassare Castiglione dies (born 1478)

Front 369

1529 p

Back 369

Charles V crowned Holy Roman Emperor at Bologna

Front 370

1530 p

Back 370

End of the Florentine Republic; Alessandro de' Medici named ruler (later, Duke) of Florence

Front 371

1532 a

Back 371

Correggio's Jupiter and Io for Federigo Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua

Front 372

1533 p

Back 372

Catherine de' Medici marries Henry, son of Francis I

Front 373

1534 d/r

Back 373

Pope Clement VII dies (born 1478)

Front 374

1534 r (1)

Back 374

St. Ignatius Loyola founds the Society of Jesus Loyola wrote: "To be right in all things we ought to adhere always to the principle that the white which I see I will believe to be black if the church so rules."

Front 375

1534 r (2)

Back 375

Alessandro Farnese elected Pope Paul III

Front 376

1534 a

Back 376

Work completed on Giulio Romano's Palazzo del Te, Mantua

Front 377

1537 d

Back 377

Alessandro de' Medici murdered (born 1511)

Front 378

1537 p

Back 378

Cosimo I de' Medici, later to become Grand Duke of Tuscany, assumes control of Florence

Front 379

1537 a (1)

Back 379

Work begun on Jacopo Sansovino's Mint and the Biblioteca Marciana, Venice

Front 380

1537 a (2)

Back 380

Cellini goes to France and meets Francis I at Fontainebleau then returns to Rome

Front 381

1538 b

Back 381

Giovanni Paolo Lomazzo born (dies 1600)

Front 382

1540 a (1)

Back 382

Parmigianino leaves the Madonna of the Long Neck unfinished, commissioned for the Baiardi Chapel, Santa Maria dei Servi, Parma

Front 383

1540 a (2)

Back 383

Cellini returns to France and begins work on large statues with classical themes and numerous other projects. He is provided with the same stipend that was given to Leonardo da Vinci

Front 384

1540 r

Back 384

Pope Paul III officially approves the Society of Jesus. Loyola wrote: "In order to be right in all things we ought to adhere always to the principle that the white which I see I will believe to be black if the church so rules."

Front 385

1541 b

Back 385

Francesco I de' Medici Born (dies 1587)

Front 386

1542 r

Back 386

Pope Paul III establishes the Roman Inquisition

Front 387

1543 scholarship

Back 387

publication of Nicholas Copernicus' De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres) which argued for a heliocentric model of the universe against Ptolomy's geocentric system, which had been accepted since antiquity

Front 388

The diameter of the earth

Back 388

is 7,926 miles. That of the sun is 870,000 (124 times larger). Average distance between earth and sun is 93,000,000 miles (107 times diameter of sun). Diameter of the moon is 2159 miles (.37 that of the earth); average distance from earth to moon is 239,000 miles (30 times diameter of earth)

Front 389

1543 a

Back 389

Cellini completes the Saltceller of Francis I, and is working on the Nymph of Fontainebleau and a model for the statue of Mars

Front 390

1545 r

Back 390

Council of Trent, called by Paul III, answers Protestant disputes, clarifies doctrine on Original sin, Eucharist, veneration of saints… it would be 300 years before the next ecumenical council

Front 391

1545 a (1)

Back 391

Agnolo Bronzino's portraits of Cosimo I and Elenora of Toledo

Front 392

1545 a (2)

Back 392

Returning to Italy because of problems with the King's mistress, Cellini receives the commission for the Perseus from Cosimo I

Front 393

1545 scholarship

Back 393

University of Padua establishes the first botanical garden in Europe

Front 394

1546 a (1)

Back 394

work begun on Michelangelo's Basilica of St. Peter's

Front 395

1546 a (2)

Back 395

Titian's portrait of Paul III and His Grandsons

Front 396

1546 c. a

Back 396

Agnolo Bronzino's Allegory of Venus, commssioned by Cosimo I as a gift for Francis I

Front 397

1547 d

Back 397

Death of Francis I of France, succeeded by Henry II

Front 398

1440 c.

Back 398

Lorenzo Valla writes "I do not know why the arts most closely approaching the liberal arts- painting, sculpture in stone and bronze, architecture- had been in so long and so deep a decline and almost died out together with literature itself; nor why they have come to life again in this age; nor why there is now such a rich harvest of both good artists and good writers." Were Dante, Giovanni Pisano, Giotto good?

Front 399

1494 l

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publication in Florence of the Greek Anthology, a collection of poems, including numerous epigrams on works of art, which span the classical and Byzantine periods of Greek literature.

Front 400

The Greek Anthology preserves several epigrams about a famously

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naturalistic bronze statue of a cow by the sculptor Myron: "I am Myron's little heffer, set up on a base. Goad me herdsman, and drive me off to the herd."

Front 401

As in the epigram about the

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mosaic satyr, the image itself speaks, a device used to suggest the startling effect of being fooled. A more philosophical viewer might observe that this effect undermines the distinction between the categories "nature" and "art".

Front 402

"Looking at Myron's heffer

Back 402

you are likely to cry out, 'either nature is lifeless, or art is alive.'"

Front 403

25 c

Back 403

Vitruvius writes De architectura Libri X (Ten Books on Architecture) In them posterity found not only instructions concerning the classical orders, city planning and temple forms, theater acoustics and the construction of engines of war, but above all the advocacy of a profound theoretical education of the architect, combined with elevated claims to social standing.

Front 404

79 c

Back 404

Pliny the Elder completes his Naturalis Historia (Natural History). In Books 35 and 36 Pliny provides a brief history of painting and sculpture in the context of his discussion of various minerals and how they are used by human beings for different purposes.

Front 405

Pliny's information is mostly

Back 405

taken from older secondary sources and is not very carefully integrated; most of what he says is unreliable in terms of factual accuracy, but it is important both for what it reveals about attitudes toward art in the ancient world and because it exerted such an influence on the imagination of later centuries.

Front 406

Pliny tells the story of a

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competition between two Greek painters, Zeuxis [ZOOK-sis] and Parrhasios: Zeuxis painted a picure of a cluster of grapes so true to life that when it was unveiled, birds flew down as if preparing to peck at it.

Front 407

He was confident of

Back 407

victory, but when he asked to have Parrhasios' picture unveiled, and found that what he had thought was the veil was in fact the painting, he had to admit defeat, for where he had deceived birds, Parrhasios had fooled an expert. (Williams)

Front 408

Perhaps the most famous

Back 408

representation of emotion in ancient art was the Sacrifice of Iphigenia by Timanthes, illustrating the episode from the story of the Trojan War in which the Greek leader, Agamemnon, must sacrifice his daughter in order to propitiate the gods

Front 409

Pliny: Upon the countenance of all present,

Back 409

that of Iphigenia's uncle in particular, grief was depicted; but having already exhausted all the characteristic features of sorrow, the artist adopted the device of veiling the features of the victim's father, finding himself unable to adequately express the father's feelings.

Front 410

Indeed, Timanthes is the only one

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among the artists in whose works there is always something more implied by the pencil than is shown, and whose execution, though of the very highest quality, is always surpassed by his inventiveness ["the inventiveness of his genius"]

Front 411

Pliny describes the history

Back 411

of painting and sculpture as the story of a steady progression to a time of maturity and subsequent decline.

Front 412

In so doing, he set

Back 412

the example for nearly all subsequent art historical writing. Altogether, the influence of these brief chapters upon Renaissance painting was scarcely slighter than that of Vitruvius upon architecture: the critical judgements which he hands down were applied and transferred again and again to other artists. (Gombrich)

Front 413

2nd century AD

Back 413

Pausanias writes his guidebook to Greece. Gombrich: He offers not only many local legends but also detailed descriptions of such sights as the Olympian Zeus of Phidias or the frescoes of Polygnotos at Delphi.

Front 414

225 c

Back 414

Philostratus' Imagines, written in Greek, ostensibly describes 64 works of art seen by the author in Naples

Front 415

1286 c

Back 415

William Durand, Bishop of Mende writes the Rationale Divinorum Officiorum (Rationale of the Divine Offices), a liturgical treatise written in Italy on the origin and symbolic sense of the Christian ritual. It presents a picture of the liturgy of the 13th century in the West, studied in its various forms, its sources, and its relation to church buildings and furniture. First printed in 1459.

Front 416

1435 c l

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Leon Battista Alberti writes his De Pictura (On Painting) Gombrich: For Alberti the new painting is a science; it rests upon the laws of optics and geometry. A picture is basically a "section through the visual pyramid," the frame a "window." Alberti dismisses the motley, multi- figured pictures of the Gothic with their expenditure of gold and jewels in favor of a classical artistic ideal of dignity ("decorum") and significance ("invenzione"). The whole tendency of his text is to distinguish art from craft, to make of it an aspect of culture.

Front 417

1548 l (1)

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Francesco de Hollanda publishes his Da Pintura Antiga (On Ancient Painting)

Front 418

1548 l (2)

Back 418

Venetian Paolo Pino publishes the Dialogo di pittura di Messer Paolo Pino, nuovamente dato in luce. Pino argues for a more liberal and poetic form of art, as compared to the scientific naturalism emerging at the time.

Front 419

1548 b

Back 419

Francesco Bocchi born (dies 1618)

Front 420

1548 b (2)

Back 420

Giordano Bruno born (dies 1600)

Front 421

1549 b

Back 421

Ferdinando de' Medici born (dies 1609)

Front 422

1550 l (1)

Back 422

Giorgio Vasari, who functioned as a sort of minister of culture to Cosimo I, publishes Le vite de piu eccellenti architettori, pittori, et scultori italiani, da Cimabue insino a' tempi nostri: descritte in lingua toscana, da Giorgio Vasari pittore aretino. Con una sua utile & necessaria introduzzione a le arti loro. A founding text of art history scholarship, Vasari's book describes art history as a progression culminating in the work of Michelangelo

Front 423

1550 l (2)

Back 423

Benedetto Varchi publishes his Lezzione: nella quale si disputa della maggioranza delle arti, e qual sia piu' nobile, la scultura o la pittura. Delivered in 1547 to the Accademia Fiorentina, the Florentine literary academy, the published version of the lectures included the statements on the relation of painting to sculpture written by Vasari, Bronzino, Pontormo, Tasso, Francesco Sangallo, Tribolo, Cellini and Michelangelo

Front 424

Three goals in Ren. art and theory which require the development of specific knowledge:

Back 424

1. naturalism (optics, proportion, anatomy) 2. aesthetics (pursuit of ideal beauty, idealized forms) 3. signification (expressing concepts through images by means of allegory, symbolism, naturalism)

Front 425

1554 a

Back 425

Benvenuto Cellini's Perseus for the Loggia della Signoria

Front 426

sculpture is...

Back 426

...a multiple viewpoint art form- according to Cellini, a good sculpture should have eight viewing points

Front 427

1555 p

Back 427

The Republic of Siena is defeated by an Imperial/Florentine army (in battle of Marciano, 1554); Philip II of Spain, in financial debt to the Medici, cedes the Sienese territory to Florence

Front 428

1556 l (1)

Back 428

Vincenzo Cartari publishes the Imagini: con la sposizione de li dei de gliantichi, a handbook for artists, which the preface states would give them ‘material for a thousand beautiful inventions with which to adorn their statues and paintings’

Front 429

1556 l (2)

Back 429

Piero Valeriano publishes his Hieroglyphica, an encyclopedia of symbolic meanings for virtually everything in the natural world, conveniently indexed under allegorical concepts. -Grove

Front 430

1557 l

Back 430

Ludovico Dolce publishes his Dialogo della pittura di M. Lodovico Dolce intitolato l’Aretino. Nel quale si ragiona della dignita' di essa pittura, e di tutte le parti necessarie, che a perfetto pittore si acconvengono: con esempi di pittori antichi, e moderni: e nel fine si fa menzione delle virtu', e delle opere del divin Tiziano. This work is polemical advocacy, inspired by Aretino, of the Venetian school, which was also supported in Paolo Pino’s Dialogo di pittura (1548), against the superiority of the Florentine tradition set out in Vasari’s Vite (1550). In it Dolce also defended the rights of the educated layman against the specialized technical knowledge of professional painters. The structure of this dialogue has some elements in common with that of Pino: the defence of the Venetian school, based on colour and naturalism; the recognition of the antiquity of painting and the view that it was superior to sculpture; and the importance of drawing. There are, however, considerable differences, and the historical significance of Dolce’s work is different, because of the moment when it was written. It is certainly a celebration of Titian, the incomparable master of colour and leader of the Venetian school of art (and Vasari drew on it in the 1568 edition of the Vite), but it follows a complex line which also includes an enthusiastic discussion of Raphael, as a learned painter and the upholder of the classical doctrine of ut pictura poësis. To the professional painter, Vasari, Dolce opposed a criterion of value for painting which is closer to rhetoric: and the three parts of painting, invention, drawing and colour, correspond exactly to the inventio, dispositio and elocutio of rhetorical theory.

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1558 l

Back 431

Cellini begins his autobiography

Front 432

1559 r

Back 432

Paul IV establishes the Index Librorum Prohibitorum [Index of Prohibited Books]. The aim of the list was to protect Christian faith and morals by preventing the reading of immoral books or works containing theological errors. Books thought to contain such errors included scientific works by leading astronomers such as Johannes Kepler's Epitome astronomiae Copernicianae, which was on the Index from 1621 to 1835.

Front 433

1560 a (1)

Back 433

Cellini completes his marble Crucifix and petitions the Duke for permission to wear armour and carry a sword in Florence

Front 434

1560 a (2)

Back 434

construction begun on Vasari's Palazzo delgi Uffizi as the offices for the Florentine magistrates

Front 435

1560s l

Back 435

Discorso di Bartolomeo Maranta all'Ill.mo Sig. Ferante Carrafa marchese di Santo Lucido in materia di pittura, nel quale si defende il quadro della cappella del Sig. Cosimo Pinelli, fatto per Tiziano, da alcune opposizioni fattegli da alcune persone

Front 436

1563 r

Back 436

Council of Trent ends

Front 437

Empiricism is

Back 437

one of several competing views about how we know "things", part of the branch of philosophy called epistemology, or "the Theory of Knowledge".

Front 438

Empiricism emphasizes the role of

Back 438

experience and evidence, especially sensory perception, in the formation of ideas, while discounting the notion of innate ideas.

Front 439

It is a fundamental part of the

Back 439

scientific method that all hypotheses and theories must test their predictions against observations of the natural world, rather than resting solely on a priori reasoning, intuition, or revelation. Science is therefor considered to be methodologically empirical in nature.

Front 440

the scientific method:

Back 440

evidence-based reasoning

Front 441

Except I shall see

Back 441

in his hands the print of the nails, and thrust my hand into his side, I will not believe … Thomas, because you have seen me, you have believed: blessed are those who have not seen, and yet have believed.

Front 442

1563 a

Back 442

Cosimo I establishes the Accademia del Disegno in Florence

Front 443

disegno goes with

Back 443

pencil, lines, the representation of edges, linear perspective

Front 444

colorire goes with

Back 444

brush, tones, the representation of surfaces, rilievo [modeling] -Bax 139

Front 445

decorum

Back 445

the classical ideal of appropriateness of style to subject

Front 446

"The perfect style is

Back 446

one which is clear without being mean or vulgar. The clearest style is that made up of ordinary words for things, but this is vulgar. On the other hand, a style that uses unusual words is lofty and raised above the commonplace. By unusual I mean strange or rare words, metaphors, or words that are lengthened or shortened or altered in some other way- anything that differs from the common way of speaking. However, a style wholy composed of such unusual words can become like a riddle, or jargon, that is impossible to understand. Therefore a certain mixture of familiar and unfamiliar terms is necessary. The use of strange or altered words will give the language distinction and keep it from seeming common and vulgar, while the use of ordinary words will secure the required clearness." -Aristotle, Poetics

Front 447

1564 p

Back 447

Francesco I de' Medici assumes authority in Florence

Front 448

1564 d

Back 448

Michelangelo dies (born 1475)

Front 449

1564 b

Back 449

Galileo Galilei born (dies 1642)

Front 450

1564 l (1)

Back 450

Giovanni Andrea Gilio publishes his Due Dialoghi, the second of which entitled Dialogo nel quale si ragiona degli errori e degli abusi de' pittori circa l'istorie, con molte annotationi fatte sopra il Giuditio di Michelangelo et altre figure, tanto de la vecchia quanto del la nova Cappella; et in che modo vogliono essere dipinte le Sacre Imagini

Front 451

1564 c l (2)

Back 451

Francesco Bocchi writes his Oratio . . . de laudibus Michaelis Angeli florentini, pictoris, sculptoris, atque architecti nobilissimi

Front 452

1565 p

Back 452

Francesco I de' Medici marries Johanna of Austria, daughter of Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor. For the occasion, Ammanati creates a temporary fountain while working on the permanent one

Front 453

1566 l

Back 453

Cellini finishes his autobiography

Front 454

1567 c. l

Back 454

Bocchi writes his Discorso sopra l'Eccellenza delle opere d'Andrea del Sarto, pittore Fiorentino (Discourse on the Excellence of the Works of the Florentine Painter Andrea del Sarto) Williams: The point of Bocchi's treatise is . . . to establish the practice of painting upon the epistemological foundation of Aristotelian philosophy.

Front 455

1568 l

Back 455

Vasari publishes a second, expanded edition of the Lives, now titled Le Vite de' piu' eccellenti pittori, scultori e architettori, scritte da M. Giorgio Vasari pittore et architetto aretino, di nuovo dal medesimo riviste et ampliate con i ritratti loro e con l'aggiunta delle Vite de' vivi e de' morti dall'anno 1550 insino al 1567, Fiorenza, Giunti, 1568

Front 456

1569 p

Back 456

Cosimo I receives the official title of Grand Duke of Tuscany

Front 457

1570 c. a

Back 457

Titian's Christ Crowned with Thorns

Front 458

1570 a (2)

Back 458

Bartolomeo Ammanati's courtyard for Palazzo Pitti

Front 459

1571 l

Back 459

Francesco Bocchi writes his Eccellenza della statua del San Giorgio di Donatello, scultore fiorentino, posta nella facciata di fuori d'Or San Michele scritta da m. Francesco Bocchi in lingua fiorentina; dove si tratta del costume, della viuacita', & della bellezza di detta statua (published in 1584)

Front 460

1571 d/a

Back 460

Benvenuto Cellini dies (born 1500) and is buries in the Chapel of St Luke in the church of the Santissima Annunziata, near the tomb of Pontormo

Front 461

1571 d/l

Back 461

Bartolomeo Maranta dies (born c. 1500?)

Front 462

1572 a

Back 462

Work begun on Francesco I's Studiolo. Giorgio Vasari is among the artists who contribute paintings to a program devised by Vincenzo Borghini

Front 463

1573 a

Back 463

Paolo Veronese paints a Last Supper (Christ in the House of Levy) for the refectory of the Convent of SS. Giovanni e Paolo, and is summoned before the Inquisition Tribunal to answer charges of having included elements unsuitable for religious painting

Front 464

1574 d/a

Back 464

Death of Giorgio Vasari (born 1511)

Front 465

1574 d/p

Back 465

Death of Cosimo I de'Medici (born 1519)

Front 466

1574 p

Back 466

Francesco I receives title of Grand Duke of Tuscany

Front 467

1575 a

Back 467

Bartolomeo Ammanati's Fountain of Neptune

Front 468

1576 d

Back 468

Titian (Tiziano Vecellio) dies (born c. 1485)

Front 469

1576 a

Back 469

Jacopo Tintoretto paints his Ariadne, Venus and Bacchus (on the Isle of Naxos, where Ariadne has been abandoned by Theseus after giving him the ball of thread to aid in his plight against the Minotaur) for the Palazzo Ducale in Venice

Front 470

1582 l

Back 470

Gabriele Paleotti publishes his Discorso intorno alle immagini sacre e profane, diviso in cinque libri. Dove si scuoprono varii abusi loro e si dichiara il vero modo che cristianamente si doverIA osservare nel porle nelle chiese, nelle case et in ogni altro luogo. Raccolto e posto insieme ad utile delle anime per commissione di Monsignore Illustriss. e Reverendiss. Card. Paleotti Vescovo di Bologna. Al popolo della citta e Diocese sua. "In a nutshell, Paleotti's purpose in writing the discorso was to ensure that sacred and profane art would move viewers away from vice and towards virtue and knowledge of God." -Simons

Front 471

1583 a

Back 471

Giambologna's Rape of the Sabines

Front 472

1584 l (1)

Back 472

Francesco Bocchi publishes the Eccellenza della statua del San Giorgio di Donatello, scultore fiorentino, posta nella facciata di fuori d'Or San Michele scritta da m. Francesco Bocchi in lingua fiorentina; doue si tratta del costume, della viuacita', & della bellezza di detta statua (written in 1571), dedicated to the Accadeimia del Disegno. Williams: The neglect of Bocchi's early writings on art is not difficult to explain. [In these essays] the works of art, when mentioned at all, tend to sink from view beneath the weight of philosophical concerns and learned citations from ancient literature. The modern reader is likely to be impressed rather by its derivative quality and repelled by a way of writing that seems to use the work of art as a point of departure for the discussion of moral and philosophical issues.

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1584 l (2)

Back 473

Giovanni Paolo Lomazzo publishes his Trattato dell’arte della pittura, scoltura, architettura di Gio. Paolo Lomazzo milanese pittore, diviso in sette libri Ne' qualle si contiene tutta la Theorica e la prattica d'essa pittura. Ackerman: "Lomazzo extended to painters the dignity enjoyed by poets and rhetoricians by demonstrating that the painter's primary and most important activity was intellectual and that his manual activity was in all cases simply an execution of ideas mentally conceived."

Front 474

1584 l (3)

Back 474

Raffaello Borghini publishes his Il Riposo di Raffaello Borghini in cui della pittura e la scultura si favella, de' piu illustri pittori e scultori e delle piu famose opere loro si fa menzione; e le cose principali appartenenti a dette arti si insegnano. The intended audience for the Riposo was a new one, that of the amateur, the refined and dilettante collector, the nobleman who, having abandoned his political interests, passed his time in the studioli and in cultivated conversation.

Front 475

1584 l (4)

Back 475

Publication of the Discorso di Alessandro Lamo intorno alla scultura, et pittura, dove raggiona della vita, e opere in molti luoghi, e a diversi prencipi e personaggi fatte dall'eccellente e nobile M. Bernardino Campo, pittore cremonese. The discorso is an imitation of and response to Vasari's Vite in which Lamo criticises Vasari for his prejudice and partiality.

Front 476

1586 a

Back 476

El Greco's Burial of Count Orgaz

Front 477

1587 l

Back 477

Giovanni Battista Armenini publishes De’ veri precetti della pittura

Front 478

1587 d

Back 478

Francesco I de'Medici dies (born 1541) on the same day as his mistress, Bianca Cappello, possibly from poisoning

Front 479

1587 p

Back 479

Ferdinando I de'Medici assumes title of Grand Duke of Tuscany

Front 480

1588 scholarship

Back 480

Grand Duke Ferdinando appoints 24 year old Galileo professor of mathematics at the University of Pisa

Front 481

1588 b

Back 481

Thomas Hobbes born (dies 1679) "All that is real is material, and what is not material is not real"

Front 482

1590 b

Back 482

Cosimo II de' Medici born (dies 1621)

Front 483

1591 l (1)

Back 483

Giovanni Paolo Lomazzo publishes his Idea del tempio della pittura, di Gio. Paolo Lomazzo pittore, nella quale egli discorre dell'origine e fondamento delle cose contenute nel suo Trattato dell'arte della pittura.

Front 484

1591 l (2)

Back 484

Francesco Bocchi publishes Le bellezze della citta di Fiorenza, dove a pieno di pittura, di scultura, di sacri templi, di palazzi i piu notabili artifizii, & piu preziosi si contengono. Scritte da M. Francesco Bocchi

Front 485

1591 l (3)

Back 485

Gregorio Comanini writes Il Figino, overo del fine della pittura,ove, quistionandosi se 'l fine della pittura sia l'ultile overo il diletto, si tratta dell'uso di quella nel Cristianesimo e si mostra qual sia imitator piu perfetto e che piu diletti, il pittore overo il poeta.

Front 486

It's amazing

Back 486

how relaxing it is not to pretend you know more than you do.

Front 487

Of things that are

Back 487

outside your control, say that they are nothing to you." -Epictatus, Stoic philosopher and slave during the reign of Nero. The Stoic doctrine is essentially about reducing vulnerability

Front 488

1592 l

Back 488

Francesco Bocchi publishes his Opera di M. Francesco Bocchi sopra l'immagine miracolosa della Santissima Nunziata di Fiorenza; Dove si narra come di quella e' grande la maesta' After the prologue, main body of the text is entitled Opera di M. Francesco Bocchi sopra'l volto miracoloso della santissima nunziata di fiorenza.

Front 489

1593 l

Back 489

Cesare Ripa's Iconologia

Front 490

1594 a

Back 490

Tintoretto's Last Supper for San Giorgio Maggiore

Front 491

1595 a

Back 491

Giambologna's Equestrian Monument to Cosimo I

Front 492

1596 b

Back 492

Rene Descartes born (dies 1650)

Front 493

1600 d

Back 493

Giovanni Paolo Lomazzo dies (born 1538)

Front 494

1600 d (2)

Back 494

Giordano Bruno executed (born 1548)

Front 495

1607 l

Back 495

Federico Zuccaro publishes his Idea dei Pittori, scultori ed architetti. "The aim of Zuccaro's treatise is to show that disegno is the fundamental principle, indeed the cause, of all human thought… The basis of his argument is the idea, most closely associated with Aristotle, that all thought depends on mental images, phantasms, and that because these inward representations form the raw material of all higher mental processes, they condition all aspects of our thought and action." Williams, 136

Front 496

1609 d

Back 496

Ferdinando I de' Medici dies (born 1549); his son Cosimo II succeeds him

Front 497

1609 science

Back 497

Kepler announces his laws of planetary motion: 1. The orbit of every planet is an ellipse with the Sun at a focus. 2. A line joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time. Kepler discovered the laws empirically, around 1605, by analyzing the astronomical observations of Tycho Brahe. Almost a century later, Isaac Newton proved that relationships like Kepler's would apply exactly under certain ideal conditions approximately fulfilled in the solar system, as consequences of Newton's own laws of motion and law of universal gravitation using classical Euclidean geometry.

Front 498

1610 b

Back 498

Ferdinando II de'Medici born (dies 1672)

Front 499

1618 d

Back 499

Francesco Bocchi dies (born 1548)

Front 500

1621 d

Back 500

Cosimo II de' Medici dies (born 1590) Ferdinando II de' Medici

Front 501

1621 p

Back 501

Ferdinando II de'Medici assumes title of Grand Duke of Tuscany. His 49 year rule was punctuaded by the termination of the remaining operations of the Medici Bank, and the beginning of Tuscany's long economic decline.

Front 502

1632 science

Back 502

Galileo publishes Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems

Front 503

We can

Back 503

test general statements by looking for contrary instances

Front 504

1642 d

Back 504

Galileo Galilei dies (born 1564) Galieo changed the scientific world in two ways: first, as the stargazer who claimed that his observations through the telescope proved Copernicus right, for which statement he was tried and condemned by the Inquisition; and second, as the founder of modern physics.

Front 505

1643 science

Back 505

Torricelli invents the barometer. Torricelli gave the first scientific description of the cause of wind, "winds are produced by differences of air temperature, and hence density, between two regions of the earth" and wrote in a letter that "We live submerged at the bottom of an ocean of air."

Front 506

1648 l

Back 506

Carlo Ridolfi publishes Le maraviglie dell'arte, overo Le vite de gl'illustri pittori veneti, e dello Stato. Oue sono raccolte le opere insigni, i costumi, & i ritratti loro. Con la narratione delle historie, delle favole, e delle moralità da quelli dipinte. Descritte dal cavalier Carlo Ridolfi. Con tre tavole copiose de' nomi de' pittori antichi, e moderni, e delle cose notabili.

Front 507

1650 d

Back 507

Rene Descartes dies (born 1596)

Front 508

1651 science

Back 508

Thomas Hobbes publishes the Leviathan, in which he dismisses 'the use of metaphores, tropes, and other rhetorical figures, instead of words proper.' -intro to semiotics website

Front 509

1662 science

Back 509

Royal Society of London founded. In an effort to support Francis Bacon's idea of building up a total system of knowledge, the society aided expiraments, corresponded with foreign societies, and published a scientific journal. -Greer and Lewis

Front 510

1667 science

Back 510

Thomas Sprat writes that the scientists of the Royal Society sought to "separate knowledge of nature from the colors of rhetoric, the devices of fancy, the delightful deceit of the fables." -Semiotics for Beginners

Front 511

1672 d

Back 511

Ferdinando II de' Medici dies (born 1610)

Front 512

1675 science

Back 512

Royal Observatory founded at Greenwich, England

Front 513

1679 d

Back 513

Thomas Hobbes dies (born 1588) "All that is real is material, and what is not material is not real"

Front 514

1687 science

Back 514

Isaac Newton publishes his account of the principles of gravity

Front 515

1717 science

Back 515

Fahrenheit invents system of measuring temperature

Front 516

1764 l

Back 516

Johann Winckelmann publishes his History of the Art of Antiquity. Winckelmann introduced the idea that art is a product of a society’s particular culture, values, and material conditions, and regarded the art of the ancient Greeks as the aesthetic expression of the highest cultural and moral values to which humans can aspire.

Front 517

the hermeneutic problem:

Back 517

how can one understand something if one does not share the conditions which gave meaning to it in the first place?

Front 518

1820 l

Back 518

Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel begins his Lectures on Aesthetics (published 1835). For Hegel, art is an expression of the continuous development of the relationship between the human mind and the Geist or Absolute Idea- for Hegel the ultimate, immaterial reality. Historical (and artistic) change is the inevitable and uncontrollable product of the dialectical process.

Front 519

connoisseurship:

Back 519

Passing judgment on AUTHENTICITY and AUTHORSHIP is the core activity of a connoisseur