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109 Cards in this Set

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How did the Big Three differ on what kind of League they wanted?
General recognition that some kind of international organisation as needed, but Wilson wanted a kind of world Parliament for discussion. Britain wanted a simple organisation that would just get together in emergencies. France wanted a strong league with its own army.
What kind of League was set up?
Wilson's vision of the League was adopted:
All major nations would join the League
There would be international disarmament.
Disputes between countries would be taken to the Legue.
Collective security - countries would come to each other's aid if invaded.
Economic sanctions could be imposed on aggressive nations.
In the last resort, force could used against aggressive nations.
Countries wouldn't dare attack other countries if they knew the USA and other powerful nations would take economic or military action against them.
What criticisms were made of Wilson's proposal?
Some thought WIlson was arrogant - why would he know the solution to Europe's problems?
Some were worried by Wilson's idealism - would nations really behave in that way?
Some said he hadn't thought things through - what would the League do if countries didn't do what it said?
Why was the idea of the League not popular in the USA?
The league was supposed to uphold the Treaty of Versailles, that many Americans disliked as it was too harsh on Germany, and on millions of German immigrants.
Many Americans had been appalled by the carnage of WWI, and wanted the USA to stay out of future wars.
Business leaders thought getting involved in international disputes would have a high economic cost to the USA, and that the USA had become powerful by isolationism.
Some thought the league would be dominated by Britain and France, and didn't want the USA to be dragged into fighting for them, and especially not to preserve their colonial empires.
What happened when Wilson tried to get the approval of the US congress for the League?
Opponents of Wilson's democratic party saw this as the oppurtunity to oust the democrat from power after 8 years.
Wilson toured to USA to put across his arguments, despite becoming seriously ill after a stroke in 1920.
Congress rejected his proposals in 1919 and 1920.
In the presidential elections of 1920, the Republican candidate Warren Harding campaigned for isolationism (Normarcy) and won.
As a result, the USA NEVER JOINED THE LEAGUE. This was a huge blow right from the start.
What were the stated aims of the League:
Discourage agression by any nation.
Encourage countries to co-operate, especially in business and trade.
Encourage countries to disarm.
Improve living and working conditions for people throughout the world.
Why were Britain and France poor leaders of the League?
They had been weakened by WWI and weren't as powerful as they had been before 1914.
They had insufficient resources to fill the gap left by the USA.
They doubted how effective it could be - many felt that only the USA could make trade sanctions work; some British politicians said that if they had known the USA wasn't going to join, they wouldn't have.
They had other priorities - e.g rebuilding trade, managing colonial empires.
France was also still worried by German and was prepared to bypass the League in order to strengthen its position against Germany.
What was the Assembly?
One representative from each nation; recommended action to the council; voted on new members of the League, temporary members of the Council, league's budget, met ONCE a year, decisions had to be unanimous.
What was the Council?
Met 5 times a year, & in emergencies, 4 permanent members (GB, FR, IT, JA) and 4-9 elected temporary members, each permanent member had a veto, it's job was to sort out international disputes by discussion, condemnation, economic sanction or military force.
What was the Permanent Court of International Justice?
It was based in the Hague, Netherlands; and was composed of judges from member nations; it could make decisions on disputes submitted to it (border disputes); gave legal advice to the Council and Assembly, but had no mechanism for ensuring that countries followed it's ruling.
Who was the Secretariat?
The civil service/bureaucracy of the League; kept records, prepared reports, arranged for interpreters etc.
What the ILO (The International Labour Organisation)?
Brought together representatives of employers, workers and governments to improve working conditions for people throughout the world; collected stats and info and made recommendations to countries.
What was the Special Commissions?
Mandates commission; refugees committee; slavery commission; health committee.
What was the conference of ambassadors?
Strictly speaking not part of the League, but made up by politicians from the leading members of the League (GB, FR, IT) and closely linked to it; given the job of settling some border disputes.
Vilna 1920:
Vilna (Capital of Lithuania, but with a mainly Polish population) occupied by Polish troops; Poland ordered to withdraw by the League; however the League did nothing and so Poland kept Vilna (As Poland was a potential future ally against Russia). Failed.
Upper Silesia 1921:
Industrial Region claimed by Germany and Poland (iron and steel). Plebiscite organised by the League with the result that industrial areas vote to join Germany, rural areas to join Poland. Both countries accepted the decision.
THe Aaland Islands 1921:
Claimed by Sweden and Finland, who threatened to fight for control of them; League rules the should go to Finland, and Sweden accepted.
Corfu 1923:
Italian soldiers marking the border between Greece and ALbania were killed on Greek territory, Mussolini demands compensation and execution of murderers and occupies Corfu. Greek government doesn't know who did it; Council condemns Italian occupation, but tells Greece to pay compensation to the League, which can be transferred to Italy when the killers are found; Mussolini accepts this but behind the scenes persuades the Conference of Ambassadors to change its mind and pays the money directly to Italy. Only then they withdraw from Corfu.
The Geneva Protocol 1924:
Drawn up by BR and FR, says that members in dispute must ask the League to sort it out and accept the Council's decision; but conservatives win the 1924 British General Election and refuse to sign the protocol.
Bulgaria 1925:
Greece invades Bulgaria after Greek troops are killed in a border incident; League orders Greece to withdraw and pay compensation; Greece obeys but complains about double standards (Corfu? Anyone? 1923?)
How did the League work towards a better world?
Refugees - 400,000 war prisoners returned to their homes; refugee camps in Turkey 1922, with league preventing Cholera, smallpox, and dysentery.
Working Conditions - ILO bans poisonous white lead from paint, limits working hours for children; campaigns for better conditions for workers; attempts to introduce max 48 hour week and 8 hour day, but only a minority of countries agrees (as this will raise industrial costs).
Health - Health committee works hard to eradicate leprosy, and starts campaign to exterminate mosquitoes (which cause malaria and yellow fever); helps USSR prevent plague in Siberia.
Transport 0 Recommendations on marking shipping anes and an international highway code for road users.
Social Problems - Blacklisted 4 large companies involved in illegal drug trade (GE, Du, Fr, and Sw); 200,000 slaves freed in British Sierra Leone; raids against slave owners and traders in Burma; reduces death rate of African workers on Tanganyika railway from 50% to 4%; kept records of and provided info on drug trafficking, prostitution and slavery.
What were all the things the LON did in the 1920's?
Vilna, Upper Silesia, Aaland Islands, Corfu, The Geneva Protocal, Bulgaria.

VUSAICTGPB
How much progress was made towards international disarmament?
Washington COnference 1921 -Br, Ja, and Fr, agreed to limit navies. 1923 plans for a disarmament treaty accepted by France and others, but rejected by Britain (as it feared it would meanBritain had to defend other countries).
1926 plans made, but a draft disarmament convention isn't drawn up until 1933, but it's then rejected by Germany. Germany was the only country to disarm to any extent.
What was significant of the Locarno Treaties in 1925?
Signed by France, Britain, Germany, Italy, Belgium, Poland.
Germany accepted (a) borders with Fr and Belgium. (b) demilitarisation of the rhineland. (c) to settle disputes with France through the League of Nations.
German goodwill resulted in feeling of greater security in France.
This paved the way for Germany to join the league in 1926.
This left the USSR as the only major European power outside the league.
What was significant of the Kellogg-Briand Pact 1928?
Signed by 65 nations who all agreed to condemn war as a means of solving disputes.
Though countries allowed to keep armies for self-defence.
It was greeted as a great moment, and a turning point in history, making the world a safer place.
Nothing was said about what would happen to a country if it broke the pact.
How did economic recovery help international co-operation?
Dawes Plan 1924 - helped sort out German economic chaos with knock-on beneficial effects for British and French economies.
US loans allow rebuilding of European industry, which increases employment, which increases international trade, which results in increased profits, which allows further rebuilding of industry.
Recovery of trading relationships helped to reduce tension between nations.
What were some problems with international agreements in the 1920's
Behind a public façade of co-operation there was still bitterness, especially between Fr and Ge.
Trusting in paper treaties (instead of the LoN) was naïve - 'no more than the hopes of decent men' - no guarantee they would be respected by aggressive expansionists like Hitler and Mussolini.
Locarno only guaranteed Germany's borders with Fr and Bel. What about Poland and Czechoslovakia - would Ger try to challenge those borders, and what would the league do about it?
Apart from Germany there was very little progress towards disarmament in the 1920's.
What caused the Great Depression?
The Wall Street Crash in 1929 was the cause of a long economic depression with serious consequences throughout the world including:
Trade and industry of all countries was damaged.
USA loaned out much less money to Europe. This had a negative impact on European industries many of which went bust. UNEMPLOYMENT ROSE.
In order to protect their own industries some countries charged protective tariffs on imports.
This resulted in a decrease in international trade.
This had further negative effects on European industries, further unemployment etc.
How did the Great Depression harm the work of the League of Nations?
In Germany unemployment and poverty led people to vote for the Nazi's who promised to sort out economic problems.
Japanese economic problems was one of the reasons behind the Japanese invasion of Manchuria.
In Italy economic problems encourage Mussolini to try to build up an overseas empire to distract people's attention.
Britain was unwilling to get involved in sorting out international disputes while its economy was in trouble.
The USA was unwilling to support economic sanctions at a time when its own trade was in a mess.
Why did the Japanese invade Manchuria?
The great depression hit Japan hard, especially when the USA and China both put up protective tariffs against Japanese goods.
Army leaders argued that the solution to Japan's economic problems was building up a Japanese empire by force.
The excuse was an incident in September 1931 - the Japanese army claimed that Chinese soldiers had sabotaged the South Manchurian Railway, and invaded Manchuria in retaliation, setting up a puppet government, were in control of Japanese foreign policy.
The Japanese claimed they had invaded in self-defence to keep peace in the area because China was a state of anarchy.
What did the League of Nations do about the Japanese Invasion?
League didn't deliver their report on the situation until September 1932 - a long delay.
The report, the Lytton Report - ruled that the Japanese invasion was illegal and Manchuria should be returned to China, and the Assembly approved the report by 47 votes to 1.
The Japanese were the only country to vote against the report.
In March 1933 Japan withdrew from the League and invaded more Chinese territory, beginning with Jehol.
Why didn't the League of Nations take further action against Japan?
Economic sanctions were discussed, but would be meaningless without the participation of the USA. (Japan's main trading partner.)
Britain wanted to keep up a good relationship with Japan.
Britain and France wouldn't risk their navies in a war against Japan in the faraway Pacific.
Only the USSR and USA had the necessary resources in the Pacific to deal with Japan, and neither were members of the League.
The League discussed banning arms sales to Japan, but this wasn't agreed.
The Members of the League were worried that if they took tough action Japan would retaliate, and cause a war which could escalate into another World War.
What was the significance of the Japanese Invasion of Manchuria?
It was obvious that japan had committed a blatant act of aggression and gotten away with it.
This proved the League was powerless to stop a strong nation from pursuing an aggressive foreign policy.
Hitler and Mussolini both observed the situation and were encouraged to follow similarly aggressive foreign policies.
What progress was made towards disarmament in 1932-1934?
Disarmament was seen to be a more urgent problem after the Manchurian Crisis.
An international disarmament conference finally got underway in 1932.
Proposals were made to ban the bombing of civilian populations, restrict the size of artillery, limit the tonnage of tanks and forbid chemical warfare.
In July 1932 the Germans walked out of the disarmament conference because other countries wouldn't agree to disarm down to German levels.
The Germans returned to the conference in January 1933 when it was agreed that they could have equality of armaments.
In February 1933 Hitler started secretly re-arming Germany, but promised not to re-arm if all other nations destroyed their arms within five years.
In October 1933 Hitler withdrew from both the disarmament conference and the League of Nations, by which time all the pwoers knew that Germany was already secretly re-arming.
Other powers began to build up their armaments as well, and although the disarmament conference struggled on into 1934, it was obvious that it was futile.
What did the Italians invade Abyssinia?
In 1896 Italian troops had suffered a humiliating defeat at the Battle of Adowa, when they had invaded Abyssinia, but been defeated by poorly equipped tribesmen - Mussolini wanted revenge.
MUssolini had his eyes on Abyssinia's fertile agricultural land and mineral resources.
Mussolini wanted the glory of military conquest, and had often spoken of his dream of restoring the glory of the Roman Empire.
Mussolini knew that success in Abyssinia could divert attention away from economic problems back in Italy.
The excuse for the Italian invasion was a dispute between Italian and Ethiopian soldiers at the oasis of Wal Wal - 80km inside Abyssinia, but Mussolini claimed it was Italian territory, and prepared an army for invasion; Emperor Haile Selassie appealed to the League for help.
How did the League response to Haile Selassi's appeal for help?
Britain and France played for time, desperate to keep on good terms with Mussolini, a potential ally against Hitler.
In 1935 Britain, Italy, and France signed the Stresa Pact (a protest against German re-armament and an agreement to stand up to German) - some historians believe Britain and France turned a blind eye to Abyssinia in return for Mussolini joining the pact.
There was public outcry against Italy's behaviour in Britain, and as a result British politicians started to talk tough, with British Foreign Minister Samuel Hoare giving a grand speech about collective security to the assembly of the League.
However, despite the tough talk, no practical steps were taken to discourage Mussolini.
In September 1935 a League of Nations Committee reported that the Wal Wal incident was nobody's fault, and recommended that part of Abyssinia should be given to Italy. This was rejected by Italy, and he launched a full-scale invasion.
How did the League respond to the Italian Invasion of Abyssinia?
The League imposed an immediate ban on arm sales to Italy.
All loans to Italy were banned.
All imports from Italy were banned.
The exports of rubber, tin and metals to Italy was banned.
However a decision on the export of oil to Italy wasn't taken.
The Suez Canal (Main supply route to Abyssinia) wasn't closed to Italian ships, which was a fatal blow to Abyssinia.
Meanwhile, the British and French Foreign Ministers hatched a secret plan to give Mussolini two thirds of Abyssinia if he would call off the invasion, when details of the plan were leaked to the press it was seen by the British and French public as a blatant act of treachery against Abyssinia and the league. Hoare and Laval did this, and both got sacked. Lol.
Why didn't Britain and France act to prevent Mussolini conquering Abyssinia?
Some believed that tough sanctions on Italy would not work unless supported by the USA.
Others believed that sanctions would damage British and French economic interests.
Some feared that closing the Suez Canal to Italian ships would result in war with Italy.
When Hitler moved into the Rhineland in 1936, the French were more desperate than ever to gain the support of Italy, and were therefore prepared to allow Mussolini to have Abyssinia.
What were the consequences of the Italian invasion of Abyssinia?
In May, the Italians captured the Abyssinian capital Addis Ababa; Haile Selassie went into exile, and the ntire country was annexed by Italy.
The idea of collective security had been shown up as an empty promise.
THe League of Nations had failed on a spectacular scale - and this time it couldn't claim that action had not been taken because it was in a faraway part of the world (as with Manchuria).
The League lost all credibility as a peace-keeping organisation.
The successful invasion of AByssinia provided further encouragement to Hitler in his expansionist ambitions.
The British and French hoped their relationship with Italy (Against Hitler) would be strengthened, but they were wrong - in November 1936 Hitler and Mussolini signed the Rome-Berlin Axis.
Why did the League of Nations fail in the 1930's?
The self-interest of leading members - neither Britain nor France was prepared to abandon their own self-interest to support the League in times of crisis.
Some important countries weren't members, so the League lacked authority and sanctions were ineffective - the USA never joined, Germany didn't join until 1926, and left again in 1933, the USSR didn't join until 1934 and was expelled in 1939. Japan left in 1933, Italy left in 1937.
Economic Sanctions didn't work - members were reluctant to impose them, because they thought they wouldn't work without the USA; when they were imposed they were easily broken, as the League lacked the muscle to enforce them.
Lack of troops - the League had no armed forces of its own, so relied on troops being contributed by members. However Britain and France were unwilling to commit troops, and no soldiers even fought on behalf on the League of Nations.
The treaties the League had to uphold were seen as unfair. The League was undermined by the fact that increasingly the Versailles unsettlement that it was supposed to uphold was seen as harsh and unjust, especially in Germany, but in other countries too, including Britain.
Decision-making was slow - the League met too infrequently and took too long to make decisions; this was made more difficult by the fact that all members of the League had to agree on a course of action.
What were Hitler's main foreign policy aims?
Abolish the treaty of Versailles - a constant reminder of German humiliation that had been signed by the 'november criminals'.
Expand German territory. Regain territory lost in 1919, unite with Austria, reabsorb Germany-speaking minorities in other countries. Such as Czechoslovakia to create a "Greater Germany".
Lebsraum - Carve out an entire empire in Eastern Europe in order to provide extra 'living space' for the German population.
Defeat communism - Hitler hated it, and believed the Bolsheviks helped defeat Germany in the first world war, and wanted to take over Germany.
He wanted to keep pushing his luck to see how much he could get a way with.
What measures did Hitler take to achieve German re-armament?
Re-armament began in secret at first, then continued more openly.
1934 League of Nations disarmament conference collapsed.
1935 Hitler staged a massive rally, celebrating the German armed forces.
1935 Anglo-German naval agreement 0 Germany builds up naval strength to 35% of RN.
1936 Conscription re-introduced breaking the Versailles Treaty.
Thousands of unemployed workers drafted into the army.
Armaments spending increases from 7.4% in 1935 to 23% in 1939.
30 Warships in 1932 increased to 95 warships in 1939, 36 military aircrafts increased to 8350, and 100,000 soldiers increased to 950,000.
What was the 1935 Saar Plebiscite?
90% voted to return to German rule, having been run by the League of Nations since 1919. Entirely legal, and a boost to Hitler's prestige.
What was the 1936 remilitarisation of the Rhineland?
A gamble that paid off. France had just signed a treaty with the USSR to protect each other against Germany; and Hitler used this to argue that Germany was under threat and should be allowed to place troops on her own frontier, many in Britain felt Germany was only going into 'its own back yard", the french wouldn't act without British support; the League issued a condemnation but no more. (They were distracted by Abyssinia at the time). Another boost to Hitler's prestige.
What was the 1938 The Anschluss with Austria?
Easier to do now that Hitler and Mussolini were allies, (M prevented it in 1934), Chamberlain felt that it shouldn't be allowed and that Versailles had been wrong to forbid it; Hitler used the Austrian Nazi Party to stir up trouble and claimed that only an Anschluss could sort it out. German troops marched in, in March to guarantee a trouble-free plebiscite on the issue, and under the eye of the Nazi troops 99.75% of Germans and Austrians voted for it.
What happened in 1938 Sudetenland?
Konrad Henlein, leader of the Nazis in the Sudetenland, stirred up trouble and demanded to be part of Germany; Hitler said that Germans in the Sudetenland were being mistreated by the Czechs, and that he was prepared to fight Czechoslovakia for the Sudetenland. International tension rose and war seemed likely; but after several meeting, the leaders of Germany, Britain, France and Italy agreed at Munich to transfer the Sudetenland to Germany; Chamberlain said this policy of Appeasement would mean 'peace for our time'.
What was the 1939 Invasion of Czechoslovakia?
March 1939, with Czechoslovakia in chaos, German troops took over the rest of the country, with no resistance from the Czechs. Britain and France did nothing, except warn Hitler that if he invaded Poland they would declare war on Germany. It was clear appeasement was over.
Did Germany invade Poland in 1939?
Yes. By the Nazi-Soviet Pact Hitler and Stalin decided to divide Poland between them, and German troops invaded on 1 September 1939. Britain and France declared war on the 2nd of September.
How significant was German Involvement in the Spanish Civil War 1936-39?
It was an opportunity for Hitler to fight against Communism, by sending German assistance to General Franco's right-wing rebels in their resistance against the Communists who were supporting the Republic government.
It gave Hitler the opportunity to try out his new armed forces in combat conditions - German aircraft made devastating raids on Spanish cities, including Guernica.
It gave Hitler something in common with Mussolini, also heavily involved in the war.
What was the significance of the Anti-Comintern Pact 1936-37?
Hitler and Mussolini realised they had much in common with the military dictatorship in Japan.
1936 Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact.
1937 Italy signed the Pact, which become known as the Axis Alliance.
The aim of the pact was to limit the influence of Communism around the world, and was aimed especially at the USSR.
Why did Britain and France follow a policy of Appeasement in the 1930's?
Communism - some admired Hitler for standing up to Communism, they were more worried about the threat of Stalin to world peace then the threat of Hitler. A strong Germany could buffer against Communism.
The British Empire - It was not certain that the British Empire and Commonwealth (E.g Canada, Australia), would all support Britain in a war against Germany.
The Great War - Britain and France were desperate to avoid another war like WWI - at any cost.
The USA - American leaders were determined not to be dragged into another war, so Britain and France were reluctant to fight Germany without the support of the USA.
Versailles - Many felt the Versailles Treaty had been unfair on Germany and assumed that once this was put right Germany would want to be a peaceful nation again.
Economic Problems - Britain and France were still suffering from the great depression, with large debts and unemployment, and many felt that this should have a higher priority than tackling Hitler.
What criticisms can be made of the policy of appeasement?
It encouraged Hitler to be aggressive - each gamble he got away with encourage him to take further risks.
It put too much faith in Hitler's promises - in the mistaken belief that Hitler was trustworthy and honourable.
It allowed Germany to become too strong - it was becoming militarily more powerful than Britain and France.
It alarmed the USSR - by sending a message that Britain and France wouldn't stand in the way of Hitler's plant to expand eastwards, thus contributing to the Nazi-Soviet pact.
In what ways can Appeasement be regarded as the right policy?
Supporters of Chamberlain said it was the only option available.
Standing up to Hitler would have meant war with Germany - but evidence available to Chamberlain showed that Britain was not ready for this.
The British armed forces were badly equipped and had fallen behind the Germans.
Appeasement bought time for BRitish rearmament.
Public opinion was in favour of Appeasement.
The USA was against standing up to Hitler.
Why did Hitler and Stalin sign the Nazi-Soviet Pact in 1939?
The USSR had joined the League of Nations in 1939, hoping it would guarantee security against Germany, but the Abyssinian Crisis demonstrated the powerlessness of the League.
Stalin saw that Britain and France hadn't resisted German Re-arament and some welcomed a stronger Germany as a force to fight communism.
The Munich Agreement increased Stalin's fears - he wasn't consulted, and thought it demonstrated Britain and France's powerlessness to stop Hitler, or maybe even that they wanted Hitler to take over eastern Europe and Russia.
Britain, France, and Russia entered negotiations in 1939, but Chamberlain wouldn't commit Britain to an alliance. Stalin was snubbed.
France and Britain guaranteed to help Poland if it was invaded - Stalin interpreted this as support for one of the USSR's biggest enemies.
Stalin also had designs on large areas of Poland and wanted to take over the Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania.) which he knew he couldn't do if he had to fight Germany. Stalin probably didn't believe that Hitler would stick to the pact forever, but knew it would give him time to build up Soviet forces against the German attack when it came.
What was agreed at the Yalta Conference in February 1945?
The USSR would enter the war against Japan.
Germany would be divided into American, British, French, and Soviet Occupation Zones.
Nazi war criminals responsible for genocide would be hunted down and punished.
Liberated countries should be allowed to hold free elections.
The USA, USSR, and Britain would join the new UN and work through it to keep peace.
Eastern Europe would be considered a Soviet sphere of influence.
In return for fixing the Soviet border with Poland further westwards than Churchill or Roosevelt wanted, the Soviets wouldn't interfere in Greece, where the British were tying to stop a communist takeover.
What happened between Yalta in February and Potsdam in July?
Soviet troops moved in to occupy most of eastern Europe - Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Romania.
Roosevelt died in April 1945 to be replaced by Truman, who was more anti-communist and more suspicious of Soviet intentions in eastern Europe.
The USA successfully tested it's first atomic bomb - a potential threat to the USSR.
Half way through the Potsdam Conference Churchill was defeated in the British General Election and replaced by Clement Attlee.
What were the main disagreements at the Potsdam Conference, July 1945?
The whole conference was dominated by rivalry and suspicion between the conflicting personalities of Truman and Stalin.
Germany - Stalin wanted Germany crippled to protect the USSR, but Truman thought this would be repeating a mistake made at Versailles.
Reparations - Stalin wanted Massive compensation for this devastation caused to the USSR and the loss of 20 million RUssian lives. Truman resisted this.
Eastern Europe - Although Roosevelt had agreed that eastern Europe would become a Soviet sphere of influence, Truman became unhappy about this and worried about Russian intentions towards the occupied countries.
What was agreed at the Potsdam conference?
to set up the four ‘zones of occupation’ in Germany. The Nazi Party, government and laws were to be destroyed, and 'German education shall be so controlled as completely to eliminate Nazi and militarist doctrines and to make possible the successful development of democratic ideas.

to bring Nazi war-criminals to trial.

to recognize the Polish Provisional Government of National Unity and hold 'free and unfettered elections as soon as possible'.

Russia was allowed to take reparations from the Soviet Zone, and also 10% of the industrial equipment of the western zones as reparations. America and Britain could take reparations from their zones if they wished.
How far did Communism spread in the years after 1945?
Poland, C's joined a coalition govt in 1945, then became a ruling part in 1947, forcing Poland's non-communist leader into exile.
Hungary - C's become largest party in 1947 elections, then proceed to imprison opposition politicians.
Romania, 1945 a C Prime Minister at the head of a left-wing coalition.
Bulgaria, elections won by left wing coalition in 45, C's then execute leaders of other parties.
East Germany, run by USSR udner Red Army until creation of C German Democratic Republic in 1949.
Czechoslovakia - elections won by a left-wing coalition in 1945; C's become largest party in 1946, one-party state established in 1948.
Albania - C's gain power after war with little opposition.
Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania absorbed into the USSR.
Yugoslavia, wartime resistance leader and communist Marshal Tito elected president in 45, wanted to rule independently from USSR, and thus got expelled from Cominform in 48.
France and Italy both had strong C parties belonging to Cominform.
The countries that were controlled by the USSR were said to be behind the "Iron Curtain".
How did Stalin tighten his grip on the Iron Curtain countries?
Secret police, used to imprison opponents of C rule and critics of the USSR.
Cominform (C Information Bureau) set up to co-ordinate the work of communist parties throughout Europe.
Communist party leaders summoned to Moscow to be briefed by Stalin.
Independly minded leaders replaced by men completely loyal to Stalin, Tito was the only one to escape.
Why did the Wartime Friendship between the USA and USSR break down?
Had only been friends because of the necessity of winning the war, but were natural enemies who distrusted each other before the war.
Many Soviets remembered that US troops had been sent to fight C in the Russian Civil War 1918-1921.
Americans had been appalled when Stalin signed the Nazi-Soviet Pact with Hitler in 1939.
The two countries had very little in common, the USA was a capitalist democracy; USSR was a communist dictatorship.
Stalin believed his policy in Easter Europe was to make the USSR secure, Truman thought it's as he wanted to expand the Soviet Empire.
What were the main differences between the USA and USSR?
Economically, USA was capitalist, USSR a communist.
Politically, USA was a democracy, USSR a one party state.
Most Americans thought freedom from govt. control as more important than equality; communists believed it was OK to control the lives of citizens if it was good for society as a whole.
Americans believed other countries should be capitalist democracies, Soviet leaders thought other countries should be Communist.
What happened to Greece after the War?
Communists wanted a Soviet republic; monarchists wanted a return of the king.
Churchill sent British troops in 1945, supposedly to restore order and supervise free elections.
Britain supported the monarchists and the king of Greece returned.
In 1946 a civil war developed when communists tried to take control of Greece.
Britain couldn't afford this war and withdrew troops in 1947.
The USA hadn't paid for some British troops to remain in Greece to prop up the royalist government.
As a result, the royalists controlled Greece in 1950, but they were a weak government.
What was the Truman Doctrine?
A new determination by Truman to resist any further spread of communism, i.e CONTAINMENT>
US intervention in Greece marked the start of this new policy.
The USA sent money, equipment, and advice to any country which was threatened by a communist takeover.
What was Marshall Aid?
A way of taking economic steps to put the T. Doctrine into practise.
The Marshall Plan was to provide economic assistance to countries that were vulnerable to communist takeover - the idea was that communism thrived in countries where people faced poverty and hardship.
Masterminded by General George Marshall, initially rejected by the US congress, put approved after a purge of anti-Soviet leader is Czechoslovakia March 1948.
17 Billion dollars were paid out to western European countries over a four year period. The plan was also good for US business as it created new markets for US goods and helped prevent another worldwide economic slump.
Eastern European countries were offered Marshall Aid, but Stalin didn't permit this as he feared it would weaken his hold on Eastern Europe and would make eastern European states dependent on the dollar.
Why and how did the USSR blockade Berlin in 1948?
Br, Fr, and the USA combined their occupation zones in 1946 to form one zone, which became known as the German Federal Republic or West Germany.
In 1948 a new currency was introduced into West Germany.
Stalin saw this as a threat and felt the need to re-assert Soviet control of Berlin by trying to gain control of West Berlin.
What was the Soviet plan in the Berlin Blockade and how well did it work?
In June 1948, the USSR blocked all supply lines in to West Berlin, cutting off 2 million west berliners from help.
They hoped that the Americans would abandon West Berlin as they wouldn't dare use tanks to ram the road blocks or railway blocks for fear of provoking war.
The plan didn't work as the USA wasn't prepared to abandon west Berlin - Truman wanted to prove to Stalin that he was serious about containment.
Berlin was supplied by air for 10 months, and in May 1949 Stalin gave up and re-opened communications.
What was the significance of the Berlin Blockade?
ShowedUSA was serious about containment, but could have resulted in a war had the USA used tanks to break through, or the USSr had shot down American planes.
Berlin became a symbol of freedom behind the Iron Curtain.
What was the background to the Cuban Missile Crisis?
Cuba is 160km from Florida, and is a large Island.
It was an ally of the USA for a long time,
American's owned most Cuban businnesses.
USA had a huge naval base at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba.
Before 1959, Cuba was governed by President Batista - an American backed dictator.
In 1959, Fidel Castro overthrew Batista after a 3 year guerilla campaign and set up a pro-Communist government.
How successful was the US containment of Cuba in 1959-61?
Frosty, but no direct confrontation, Castro nationalised US businesses, but allowed the USA to keep its naval base and assured Americans living in Cuba they were safe.
BUT Cuba was importing arms from the USSR and AMerican Spies knew this,
In January 61, USA broke off diplomatic relations with Cuba, a signal that it wasn't going to tolerate a soviet satellite in the US sphere of influence.
In April, it was the BAY OF PIGS> Kennedy supplied arms, equipment and transport for 1400 Cuban exiles to invade Cuba and overthrow Castro; the invasion was a disaster; Castro and Khrushchev were scornful of Kennedy's pathetic attempt to remove Communism from Cuba, and took the Bay of Pigs as evidence that the USA wouldn't get involved directly in Cuba.
What interest did the USSR take in Cuba after the Bay of Pigs?
Soviet arms flooded into Cuba, and in May 62 the USSr publicly announced this, and Cuba had the best equipped army in Latin America by July. In September 1962, the Cubans had Soviet missiles, patrol boats, tanks, radar vans, missile erectors, jet bombers and fighters, and the help of 500 soviet technicians.
How did the USA respond to Soviet military assistance for Cuba?
They were alarmed - especially by the possibility of Soviet nuclear weapons on Cuba. In September 62' the CIA told Kennedy that the USSR wouldn't send nuclear weapons to Cuba, it was too risky and they hadn't done this with any other satellite states.
Kennedy warned the USSR that he would prevent 'by whatever means necessary' cuba becoming an offensive military base.
The USSR assured the USA they wouldn't put nuclear missiles on Cuba.
What did U2 photographs show in October 62?
It showed the USSR was building a nuclear missile site. Some were nearly finished, some built, some had missiles, some waiting for delivery. Experts said the most developed sites could be ready to launch missiles in 7 days.
US spy-planes also showed that 20 Soviet ships were on the way to Cuba with missiles.
Kennedy was informed on 16 October. He formed a special team of advisers called Ex. Comm.
Why did the USSR place nuclear missiles on Cuba?
It was a risky strategy as they didn't disguise it, but maybe they were trying to...
Bargain with the USA for concession if they removed it?
Test the USA to see how determined they were?
Trap the USA to get them drawn into a nuclear war?
Get the upper hand in the arms race? Khrushchev wanted to close the gap as missiles on Cuba would make it unlike the USA would launch a first strike on Cuba.
Defend Cuba? The missiles were there to defend them?
What were Kennedy's options in October 62?
He imposed a naval blockade of Cuba - he wanted to stop Soviet ships bringing any more military supplies into Cuba and call for them withdraw what was already there. This wouldn't be a direct act of war, but would the USA was serious, and wouldn't put the onus on Khrushchev to make the next move. Also, this didn't solve the problem that there were already missiles on Cuba that could be used within a week, and perhaps the USSR respond by blockading Berlin.

He also could have done nothing. But would have looked Weak.
He could have launched a surgical air strike, but this was too risky,
He could invade cuba by land and sea, buy the USSR could respond.
He could apply diplomatic pressure-get the UN to intervene. But he'd look weak.
How was the Cuban Missile Crisis resolved?
22 Oct62 - Kennedy announced blockade and called on the USSR to withdraw.
23 - Khrushev sent Kennedy a letter, saying he didn't admit the presence of neclear missiles on Cuba and wouldn't observe the blockade.
24 - First Soviet ships approached the blockade but turned bac.
25 - WOrk on the Cuban missile bases continued rapidly
26 - Khrushchev sent another letter saying the missiles were defensive, but if the USA could assure the USSR they wouldn't attack Cuba and life the blockade, they could remove or destroy them.
27 - Khrushev sent a revised letter saying that the USSR would withdraw its missiles if the USA withdrew its missiles from Turkey. NOPE by Kennedy.
27 - U2 spy plane was shot down and a US pilot was killed. Kennedy was advised to launch an immediate attack, but accepted Khrushchev's original terms and on the 28th Khrushchev agreed to withdraw the missiles.
What was a result of the Cuban Missile Crisis?
Soviet nuclear missiles were withdraw.
Cuba remained communist.
Cuba continued to be armed by the USSR, Kennedy enhanced his reputation by making it seem Khrushev had backed down, and K proved himself as a responsible peace maker.
This helped start a thaw in the Cold War, with both sides now prepared to take further steps to prevent nuclear war, having come so close to it. A permanent hotline was set up between the Kremlin and the White House. 1962, the USSR and USA signed a Nuclear Test Ban Treaty - an important step forwards. Kennedy's success strengthened the belief in the USA that containment of communism was a good strategy, much better than a more direct, interventionist approach.
What are the origins of the Vietnam War?
Vietnam, formerly known as Indo-China had been ruled by France since 19th century. It was taken over by the Japanese during WW2.
After WW2, Ho Chi Minh, leader of the Viet Minh who was in control of North Vietnam declared Vietnamese independence and aimed to take the whole country resulting in war with France.
After 1949 communist China gave assistance to Viet Minh.
The USA saw the Viet Minh as puppets of communist China and feared Chinese domination of South-east Asia so poured 500 million a year into helping the French.
The French set up a non communist govt. in South Vietnam.
The war lasted until 1954 but the French were unable to deal with the Viet Minh's guerrilla tacticts.
What happened at Dien Bien Phu in 54? What was it's significance?
Large force of French paratroopers were defeated, 3000 died, 8000 were in captivity. A small Asian state ad defeated a rich European country by means of leadership, tactics and determination.
French pulled out of Indo-China. At a 1954 peace conference in Geneva it was decided to divide the country into North and South Vietnam until elections could decide its future.
Why and how did the USA become increasingly involved in Vietnam?
The Domino Theory - President Eisenhower and Secretary of State J.F Dulless believed that if Vietnam feel to communism then Laos, Camboaida, Thailand and even India could follow.
In 1955 the USA helped Ngo Dinh Diem set up the republic of South Vietnam and supplied his (Corrupt) regime with 1.6 Billion. After his overthrow other corrupt regimes continued to receive American Aid.
This led to an increase in support for the communist Viet Cong set up in 1960.
The Viet Cong attacked South Vietnamese government foces, officials and buildings, making the countryside unsafe for government forces; and also attacked US bases.
By 1962 President Kennedy was sending military advisers to fight the Viet Cong.
As tension between North and South increased in 1963 and 64, so did the number of US soldiers. 11,500 in 62 and 23000 in 64.
AFter JFK's assassination in 1963 President Lyndon Johnson was more prepared to commit the USA to full scale conflict in Vietnam to prevent the spread of Communism.
In August 1964 North Vietnamese boats fired on US ships in the Gulf of Tonkin - as a result the US congress passed the Tonkin Gulf resolution, giving Johnson the green light to take the USA into a full scale war.
What were the tactics of the Viet Cong?
Guerilla tactics, retreat when the enemy attacks, raid when the enemy camps, attack when the enemy tires, pursue when the enemy retreats, wear down morale.
US forces had problems finding it difficult to distinguish Viet Cong from local peasants; difficult to catch them when they disappeared into the jungle; constant fear of ambushes and booby traps.
The Viet Cong were also ruthless - a campaign of terror against employees of the South Vietnamese government (27,000 Civilians killed in 5 years).
The Viet Cong were determined and persistent, and wouldn't give in despite losing a million men.
The USA and South Vietnamese had more men and better equipment, but the Viet Cong used guerilla tactics.
What were the tactics of the US forces?
Bombing - Operation Rolling Thunder continued until 1972, and the USA dropped more bombs on Vietnam than they did in the whole of WW2.
Chemical weapons such as Agent Orange, a toxic weedkiller to destroy the jungle where the Viet Cong hid; Napalm.
Search and Destroy - heavily defended bases in South Vietnam, from which search-and-destroy helicopter raids were launched. Tis resulted in the destruction of innocent villages and high civilian casualties, causing many South Vietnamese peasant to support the Viet Cong.
What was the Tet Offensive of 1968, and what was it's significance?
A major communist offensive on over 100 cities and other targets, including capital Saigon which ultimately failed.
The Viet Cong lost 10,000 fighters and were severely weakened.
They hoped the South Vietnamese people would rise up and join them but didn't, raising the question - |Why had US forces been taken by surprise? Was it worth the great loss of life that was sustained in retaking the towns?
What did the American public think about the Vietnam War?
Public opinion was already turning against the war before 1968, but this increased after the Tet Offensive.
Many Americans were disturbed by TV, radio, and newspaper reports - including pictures of torture and executions and children being burned by napalm.
There were anti-war protests all over the USA>
Thosands of young men dodged the draft - i.e refused to fight.
There were hundreds of demonstrations in US universities - at Kent State University in Ohio the National Guard killed four students when they broke up a demonstration.
What was the My Lai Massacre and what was its impact?
A massacre of 300-400 innocent civilians by US troops in the South Vietnamese village of My Lai.
Details leaked out and the US Congress was asked to investigate.
Lieutenant William Calley was used by the army as their scapegoat - he was blamed and said to be exceeding his orders. He was found guilty and sentenced to 20 years hard labour.
Life magazine published pictures of the massacre which the US public found shocking.
700,000 anti war protestors demonstrated in Washington DC in November 1969, the largest political protest in US history.
What was President Nixon's contribution to the Vietnam War?
He was elected in 1968 and promised to work towards an end to US involvement in Vietnam.
Peace negotiations - National security adviser Henry Kissinger had regular meetings with the North Vietnamese chief peace negotiator, Le Duc Tho.
Vietnamisations of the war effort - South Vietnamese forces were built up and US troops were withdrawn (400,000 left 1969-1971).
Bombing - Increased bombing campaigns to show they weren't soft on communism.
Cambodia - Nixon orders a US invasion of Viet Cong bases in Cambodia causing outrage across the world and in the USA.
Pressure on the USSR - During the Strategic Arms limitations talks in 1970 Nixon asked Moscow to encourage North Vietnam to end the war.
Pressure on China - as US relations with China improved, Nixon visited China in 1972 and asked the Chinese to put pressure on North Vietnam to end the war.
The withdrawal of US forces - After the failure of another North Vietnamese offensive in 1972, a peace agreement was signed between the north and south, allowing nixon to pull out US troops which had been completed by March 1973.
Why did South Vietnam fall to the Communists after 1973?
North Vietnamese renewed their offensive and captured the capital of SOuth Vietnam, Saigon, in April 1975.
Without US military aid, the South Vietnamese government couldn't resist.
Nixon had promised to continue financial aid and military support but Congress wouldn't allow this as they thought the South Vietnamese government was corrupt and didn't have the support of the majority of the population.
How did the Vietnam War affect the policy of Containment?
The war severely damaged the idea of containment - the USA had failed to stop the spread of communism in Vietnam
US involvement in Vietnam actually assisted the spread of communism, as it increased support for communists in Laos and Cambodia which both had communist governments by 1975,
THe war was a propaganda disaster for the USA - atrocities committed by US forces, chemical weapons, and propping up a corrupt regime.
The USA entered into a period of greater understanding with both the USSR and China.
What were the consequences of the Vietnam War?
Vietnamese citizens were poisoned by dioxins from chemical warfare, continuing injuries from unexploded mines and bombs, disfigurement cause by napalm.
Vietnamese society - 5 million made homeless, thousands became 'boat people\ and tried to sail to malaysia and hong kong, about a million refugees moved to the West. Thousands were driven into shanty towns near US bases and resorted to prostitution and drug abuse, creation of a large black market to supply luxuries to US forces.
On the environment, the chemical warfare damaged crops, leading to food shortages; 5.4 million acres of forest were destroyed, streams and rivers were poisoned.
On US troops, many became drug addicts, veterans weren't welcomed back as heroes and many found it hard to adjust to civilian life; post traumatic stress disorder, some who handled Agent Orange contracted cancer.
Who was Stresemann?
German Chancellor for a few months in 1923.
A leading member of every German government 1923=1929.
A right-wing politician, with wide support.
An extremely skilful and shrewd politician.
He slowly built up German prosperity and presided over a period of hope and optimism.
Instituted the policy of Fulfilment - i.e complying with the terms of Versailles in order to gain readmission to the international community.
What were Stresemann's economic achievements?
He ended hyperinflation by calling the worthless marks and burning them, and replacing them with a new currency called the Retenmark.
He got industrial production moving again by calling off the passive resistance in the Ruhr.
1924 the Dwes Plan scaled down German reparations and spread them over a longer period and provided for loans of 800 million marks from the USA. Then in 1929 the Young Plan further reduced the German reparations bill.
By 1928 Industrial production was back to prewar levels, reparation were being paid eand exports were increasing.
BUT the loans could be called in at short notice, so economy recovery was precarious.
Also owners of businesses and property in cities, and industrial workers, were better off peasant farmers and small businesses didn't fare as well.
What were the cultural achievement of the Stresemann era?
Writers, poets, and artists flourished, especially in Berlin.
The famous Bauhaus style of architecture developed - this rejected traditional styles to create new and exciting buildings.
A golden age for German cinema, with stars like Marlene Dietrich and directors like Fritz Lang.
Clubs and nightlife flourished with 900 danceboards in Berlin in 1927.
Censorship was removed, cabaret artists performed songs criticising political leaders that would have been banned in the Kaisers day; also songs about sex that earlier generations would have found shocking.
BUT many people in country towns and villages thought there was a moral decline going on in the big cities, made worse by American immigrants and Jewish artists and musicians - the Nazis were later able to harness these feelings.
What was achieved in Germany foreign policy in the Stresemann era?
1925 The Locarno Pact, agreeing to accept frontiers with Fr and Be.
1926 Germany admitted into the LON.
1928 Kellogg-Briand Pact - Germany agrees to 'renounce was as an instrument of policy.'
1929 0 Dawes plan further renegotiation of the reparations settlement and more US loans.
1929 Allies withdraw from the Rhineland.
BUT Stresemann as attacked by some Nationalists for accepting the terms of Versailles by joining the League and signing he Locarno Pact; Communist also attacked Locarno as a plot against the USSR.
How much political stability did Stresemann bring to the Weimar Republic?
Democracy seemed to be working and there were no more rebellions of uprisings.
Extremist parties like the Nazis weren't very popular - in the 1928 election the Nazis gains less than 3% of the vote.
But there were 4 different Chancellors and about 30% of the electorate voted for parties opposed to the Republic.
In 1926 Hindenburg was elected President, and he opposed democracy.
Nazis and Communists were gradually building up their party organisations.
What were the Nazis doing during the Stresemann Era 1924-1929?
Hitler spent 9 months in prison and wrote Mein Kampf.
He came to the conclusion that the Nazis would have to use democratic methods to achieve power, rather than seizing it by force.
The Nazis organised recruitment drives to gain more members - rising to 100,000 by 1928. The created a network of local Nazi parties, and set up youth organisations such as the Nazi Student's League and Nazi Youth.
The enlarged the SA in 1925 - especially with unemployed servicemen, and the they set up the SS - like SA, they were extremely loyal to Hitler.
The used propoganda created by Joseph Goebbels to spread their message - posters, leaflets, films, radio, rallies.
They started to put candidates up for the Reichstag election.
What were Hitler's main ideas in Mein Kampf and other writings?
Nationalism - Intense loyalty to and pride in Germany.
Foreign Policy - Expansionism, remilitarisation, lebensraum (Poland and Russia).
Racism - German racial purity, Aryan (white European) amster race vs. slave races (Untermenschen), especially the jews.
War - Armed struggle was an essential part of the development of a healthy Aryan race.
The Fuhrer - Total loyalty to the leader better than debate and democracy.
Who voted for the Nazi 1924-1929?
Some peasant farmers, especially in Northern Germany - Nazis promised to help agriculture and praised peasants and racially pue.
Some lower middle-class shopkeepers and small businessmen - who were struggling to make end meet under the Weimar Republic and were badly hit by hyperinflation.
Some conservative middle-class people in towns - who liked the Nazi condemnation of Weimar culture as immoral.
BUT not much support from workers - who either voted Communist or (especially) socialist.
In 1928 they only won 12 Reichstag seats. A fringe party with only 3% of the votes.
How did the Great Depression help the Nazi's?
Inability of the Weimar government to take strong and decisive action - Hitler said Germany needed a strong leader like him to solve the economic problems.
Continuing reparations - Hitler argued that these were now more intolerable than ever, and that the Versailles Treaty must be reversed.
Unemployment - The Nazis would create more employment in the army, armaments industry and public works.
Someone for Hitler to blame for the depression - Allies, Weimar government and Jews.
RESULT: In the 1930 Reichstag Election the Nazis won 107 seats, in November 1932 nearly 200, making them the largest party in the Reichstag. (Now with an Overall Majority.)
Why did the Nazis do well in elections?
Electoral Tactics - Catchy generalised slogans rather than specific policies. This is made it hard for opponents to criticise them, and they talked about uniting behind one leader, emphasis on traditional values, end the decadent Weimar culture. He identified scapegoats to push the problem on (Allies, Jews, Communists, Weimar politicians)' contmept for Weimar democracy as unable to solve Germany's problems; posters and pamphlets, impressively large and enthusiastic rallies; impressive discipline and order shown by SA and SS; soup kitchens and hostels for unemployed people.
Hitler - The Nazi's greatest asset; a powerful orator; a dynamic man with modern ideas; also a man of the people who understood ordinary Germany's; increased his profile by winning 13 million votes in 1932 Presidential Election (To Hindenburg's 19 Million.)
Negative Cohesion - People didn't necessarily agree with their views of the Nazi's, however they shared some of their fears and dislikes, voting for negative rather than positive reasons.
Disillusionment with Democracy - Inability of Weimar politicians to tackle the Depression, e.g breakdown of Centre/Socialist coalition 1930, forcing Chancellor Heinrich Bruning to rely on Hindenburg's emergency powers of presidential scree; thus politicians appear to be squabbling about coalitions and cabinet jobs instead of sorting out economic problems.
The Threat of Communism - Communist support was growing and middle-class businessmen and big industry were afraid that if Communists got into power they would introduce state control of business, farmers feared a Communist government would collectivise land; a growing feeling that the Nazis had to combat this threat.
How did Hitler Become Chancellor in 1933?
The Nazis had the most seats in the Reichstag (230 in July 1932; 192 in November 1932).
But Hindenburg wouldn't appoint Hitler Chancellor and preferred his old friend Papen.
When Papen had virtually no support in the Reichstag, Hindenburg was forced to appoint Hitler in January 1933 with papen as Vice-Chancellor and a few Nazis in the cabinet.
Papen and Hindenburg believed they could resist Hitler's influence and extremist demands, and at the same time use Hitler to get the support of the Reichstag for their ideas; they were wrong.
How did Hitler transform himself from Chancellor to Dictator?
What was the Reichstag Fire? February 1933.
Hitler claimed this was the work of the Communists, and was the prelude to an attempted Communist takeover; he was given emergency powers by Hindenburg to arrest Communist leaders and break up meetings; voters were scared by threats of a possible Communist uprising.
What happened in the March 1933 Reichstag elections?
The Nazis won 288 seats, and with the support of the smaller Nationalist Party, Hitler now had an overall majority for the Nazi's.
What was the March 1933 Enabling Act?
Using the SA and SS Hitler intimidated the Reichstag into passing this act - giving him power to pass laws without the consultation of the Reichstag - only the Socialists (SPD) voted against this. (Communists were banned after the Reichstag Fire, Catholic Centre Party supported Hitler in return for retaining control of Catholic schools). This gave Hitler virtual dictatorial powers.
What was the 1933-34 Nazi 'Revolution'?
Hitler now used his dictatorial powers to strengthen his position; civil service, courts and education purged of Jews and opponents of Nazis (April), trade unions banned and workers forced to join German Labour Front (May 1933). Law outlawing political parties other than the Nazis makes Germany a one-party state (July), all state governments taken over by central government (January 1934); opponents of the Nazis leave Germany or are taken to Concentration Camps, run by the SS.
What the Night of Long Knives in June 1934?
Hitler eliminated Ernst Rohm and other SA leaders (and also unconnected political enemies, e.g Schleicher) absorbed many SA members into the army, and subordinated the SA under the SS; in return the Army pledged its full allegiance to Hitler.
What did the Death of Hindenburg mean in August 1934?
Hitler combined the offices of Chancellor and President and became Supreme Leader (Furher) of Germany - the army agreed to serve him, and in return hitler began re-armamanet and brought back conscription, and made plans for an expansionist foreign policy,
What were the main terms of the Treaty of Versailles?
The War Guilt Clause.
Reparations. 6.6 Billion in 1921, with Germany continuing to pay it up to 1984.
German Territory - Alsace-Lorraine to France; Eupen and Malmedy to Belgium, Northern Schlewswig to Denmark (Plebiscite), Saarland run by League for 15 years, then a plebiscite, West Prussia and Posen to Poland, Upper Silsea to Poland, Danzin made a free city, run by League, union of Germany and Austria forbidden.
Overseas Colonies - Confiscated and became 'mandates' controlled by the league, but basically controlled by Britain, France and others; e.g German East Africa to Britain, Cameroon to France, New Guinea to Australia, Samoa to New Zealand.
Demilitarisation - Army limited to 100,000 men, serving for 12 years; conscription banned; no armoured vehicles, submarines, aircraft, heavy artillery, only 6 battleships, demilitarisation of the Rhineland with occupation by allied troops.
How did Germany react to the Treaty?
Lost 10% of it's land. 12.5% of it's population. 16% of its coalfields, 50% of its Iron and Steel industry, 100% of its overseas colonies.
War Guilt Clause justified reparations - this threatened to destroy the German economy, when Germans were already starving.
Disarmament - upsetting as Germany had a proud military tradition; and no allied powers disarmed, despite Wilson wanting this in his 14 points.
Territorial losses - A blow to pride, and the economy. Upper SIlesia and Saar were important industrial areas.
Anger that Germany was not represent at the talks, -many believed they had merely agreed to a ceasefire rather than surrender as no allied troops had entered Germany and the treaty was a 'Diktat'.
German government initially refused to sign, but eventually agreed on 28th of June 1919.
Double standards - self determination for some, but not for many Germans; disarmament only for Germany, creation of the League of Nations but they weren't allowed to join!
What was the impact of the Versailles Treaty on Germany?
It made President Ebert and his government very unpopular and contribute to the Kapp Putsch which was only defeated by a general strike, causing chao and disruption. Occupation of the Ruhr by French and Belgian troops after Germany feel behind with reparations resulted in a strike, which was abd for the economy and provoked a harsh reaction by the French (100 Killed, 100,000 Expelled).
Many blamed the hyper-inflation of 1923 on reparations though the truth is more complex.