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124 Cards in this Set
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Haeckel
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described and named thousands of new species, mapped a genealogical tree relating all life forms, and coined many terms in biology, including phylum, phylogeny, ecology and the kingdom Protista.
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Haeckel promoted and popularized Charles Darwin's work in Germany and developed the controversial recapitulation theory ("ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny") claiming that an individual organism's biological development, or ontogeny, parallels and summarizes its species' entire evolutionary development, or phylogeny. 1834-1919
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Hull
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History and philosophy of science. He was a professor at the Emeritus Northwestern University (philosophy). In 1964 he came up with the Logic of Phylogenetic Taxonomy at the Indiana University; former president of the Philosophical Society of America (PSA), Society of Systematic Zoology. Wrote systematics in 20th century and Science as a process. Was an outwardly gay rights advocate.
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Hull also proposed an elaborate discussion of science as an evolutionary process in his 1988 book, which also offered a historical account of the "taxonomy wars" of the 1960s and 1970s between three competing schools of taxonomy: phenetics, evolutionary systematics, and cladistics.
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Huxley
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1922-1975 English evolutionary biologist, humanist and internationalist. He was a proponent of natural selection, and a leading figure in the mid-twentieth century evolutionary synthesis. He was Secretary of the Zoological Society of London (1935–1942), the first Director of UNESCO, and a founding member of the World Wildlife Fund.
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Huxley was well-known for his presentation of science in books and articles, and on radio and television
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new evolutionary synthesis
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took place around the time of World War II. The synthesis of genetic and population ideas produced a consensus which reigned in biology from about 1940, and which is still broadly tenable.
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Huxley
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Eugenics movement
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"The lowest strata are reproducing too fast. Therefore... they must not have too easy access to relief or hospital treatment lest the removal of the last check on natural selection should make it too easy for children to be produced or to survive; long unemployment should be a ground for sterilisation"
"no-one doubts the wisdom of managing the germ-plasm of agricultural stocks, so why not apply the same concept to human stocks?" |
Huxley
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“Fundamentally the problem of systematics…is that of detecting evolution at work”
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Huxley
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Mayr
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1904-2005 one of the 20th century's leading evolutionary biologists. He was also a renowned taxonomist, tropical explorer, ornithologist, historian of science, and naturalist. His work contributed to the conceptual revolution that led to the modern evolutionary synthesis of Mendelian genetics, systematics, and Darwinian evolution, and to the development of the biological species concept.
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Neither Darwin nor anyone else in his time knew the answer to the species problem: how multiple species could evolve from a single common ancestor. Ernst Mayr approached the problem with a new definition for the concept species. In his book Systematics and the Origin of Species (1942) he wrote that a species is not just a group of morphologically similar individuals, but a group that can breed only among themselves, excluding all others. When populations of organisms get isolated, the sub-populations will start to differ by genetic drift and natural selection over a period of time, and thereby evolve into new species. The most significant and rapid genetic reorganization occurs in extremely small populations that have been isolated (as on islands).
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Mayr
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The idea that a few people have about the gene being the target of selection is completely impractical; a gene is never visible to natural selection, and in the genotype, it is always in the context with other genes, and the interaction with those other genes make a particular gene either more favorable or less favorable
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Wrote “The New Systematics” with Julian Huxley
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Mayr
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introduced the terms cladism and cladist
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Hennig
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1913-1976 German biologist who is considered the founder of phylogenetic systematics, also known as cladistics. With his works on evolution and systematics he revolutionised the view of the natural order of beings. As a taxonomist, he specialised in dipterans (ordinary flies and mosquitoes).
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Embryology
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As recently as the 18th century, the prevailing notion in human embryology was preformation: the idea that semen contains an embryo — a preformed, miniature infant, or "homunculus" — that simply becomes larger during development. The competing explanation of embryonic development was epigenesis, originally proposed 2,000 years earlier by Aristotle. According to epigenesis, the form of an animal emerges gradually from a relatively formless egg. As microscopy improved during the 19th century, biologists could see that embryos took shape in a series of progressive steps, and epigenesis displaced preformation as the favored explanation among embryologists
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Modern embryological pioneers include Gavin de Beer, Charles Darwin, Ernst Haeckel, J.B.S. Haldane, and Joseph Needham
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Science as a selection process
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1. Variation in conceptualization of core ideas within a research group
2. Transfer of those characters to the next generation, through students and publications 3. Change in ideas, theories, research methods, etc. 4. Selection pressure from journals, professional societies and funding |
• Hull |
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Modern Synthesis
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• A union of ideas from several biological specialties, which forms a logical account of evolution.
• Genetics are consistent with natural selection |
• Julian Huxley invented the term
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Numerical Taxonomy: looking at the species as they are
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• Methods must be objective, explicit, quantitative, and repeatable.
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Phylogenetic Classification: looking at the species as they were
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1. Gives everything its own categories: like linneaus system
2. Fundamental, methodological principles 3. Sister groups 4. Nested sets of monophyletic groups diagnosed by the discovery of synapomorphies. 5. Cladograms as hypotheses. |
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• “…the natural system is genealogical in its arrangement”
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-Darwin
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• “All science is either physics or stamp collecting.”
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-Rutherford
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• “taxonomy is both science and art.”
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- Simpson
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Linnaeus
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• His system (as opposed to Buffonts’ was adopted bc he was louder, published more and had more grad students. He used quick, simple explanations for classifying)
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• Swedish botanist, physician and zoologist.
• Laid the foundations for binomial nomenclature • “FATHER OF TAXONOMY” and one of the fathers of modern ecology • “By the Oeconomy of nature, we understand the all wise dispositions of the CREATOR, in relation to natural things by which they are fitted to produce general ends and reciprocal uses. • Oeconomy of Nature |
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Haeckel
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• creates the word ecology
• “ecology is the study of all those complex interrelations (organic/inorganic fluxes) referred to by Darwin as the condition of the struggle for existence.” • Neologism the body of knowledge concerning the ecology of nature (study of knowledge concerning the economy of nature- the investigation of the total relations of the animal both to its inorganic and to its organic environment...in a word, ecology is the study of all those complex interrelations referred to by Darwin as the condition of the struggle for life) |
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Clements
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1874-1945 Climax Community- Cleaning everything out
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• Climax community- monoclimax: the climax community (fully developed community)
• How things work without humans. • He would clear out entire ecosystems just to watch how they grew back. • Foundation of ecology for university • Wrote “plant succession” |
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The monoclimax
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climax community (Clements)
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climax formation: is the adult organism, the fully developed community, of which all initial and medial stages are but stages of development.”
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Britton
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1859 – 1934 US botanist and taxonomist who founded the New York Botanical Garden in Bronx, New York. Britton was born in New Dorp in Staten Island, New York. His parents wanted him to study religion, but he was attracted to nature study at an early age.
He was a graduate of the Columbia University School of Mines and afterwards taught geology and botany at Columbia. Britton was the first director of the New York Botanical Garden. He engendered substantial financial support for the botanical garden by naming plants after wealthy contributors |
• Founded the New York Botanical Garden and the desert botanical station in Tucson (pure research station- looked at how environment changed plants- they studied how plants from NY did in tuscon)
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Leopold
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•1887-1948 Wrote “A Sand County Almanac).
• Wrote “The Game” also called the book, how to manage the land • Collection of biotic and abiotic factors • American ecologist, forester and environmentalist • “Father of wildlife management” |
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Arthur Tansley
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•1871-1955 Founder of the British Ecological Society
• English botanist • Championed the term “Ecosystem” and “Ecotope” |
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Ecological Point of View:
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1. Study animals and organisms
2. Study nature as predator vs prey 3. Adaption of nature 4. How does the environment affect the organisms? |
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Ecology
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1. Biogeography and Natural history: trying to understand the environmental impact of certain plants
2. Land-grant universities: land for research 3. Research situations 4. Natural-scientific 5. Natural resource management |
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Morrill Act
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Federal government says they will give you large chunks of federal lands for experimental and educational purposes
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Life Zones
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• certain plants and animals that are typical of these environments.
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Developed by C. Hart Merriam
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Hart Merriam
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1855-1942 was an American zoologist, ornithologist, entomologist and ethnographer
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In 1886, he became the first chief of the Division of Economic Ornithology and Mammalogy of the United States Department of Agriculture, predecessor to the National Wildlife Research Center and the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. He was one of the original founders of the National Geographic Society in 1888. He developed the "life zones" concept to classify biomes found in North America. In mammalogy, he is known as an excessive splitter, proposing, for example, tens of different species of North American brown bears in several genera.
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Climax community
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• Founded by Clements
• The climax formation is the adult organism, the fully developed community, of which all initial and medial stages are but stages of development. • Is a biological community of plants and animals which through the process of ecological succession-the development of vegetation in an area over time- has reached a steady stage. |
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KINGSLAND
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“I start with the assumption that the existence of ecology as a discipline should not be taken for granted.”
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HUMBOLDT (FATHER OF BIOLOGY)
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“…In short I must find out about the harmony of nature.”-
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George Perkins MARSH
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“The equation of animal and vegetable life is too complicated a problem for human intelligence to solve, and we can never know how wide a circle of disturbance we produce in the harmonies of nature when we throw the smallest pebble in the ocean of organic life.”-
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-LEOPOLD
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“Ecology is a science that attempts this feat of thinking in a plane perpendicular to Darwin.”
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Lavoisier
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• father of modern chemistry
• French: In the French academy of sciences • Stated the first law of conservation of mass: (no energy is created or destroyed?) • Worked on first geological map of France • Recognized and named Hydrogen and Oxygen • Wrote the first extensive list of elements • Introduction of the metric system • Studies of transpiration and respiration • Drawing of vertical cross-sections to represent stratigraphic order • Knew elements exist, but he couldn’t measure atoms so its all a speculation. |
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Stahl
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•1659-1734 Introduces the term “phlogiston”
• German chemist and physician • Phlogiston theory • Fermentation |
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Priestley
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• Defended the phlogiston to the end
• Studied air • English • Invented soda water |
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Scheele
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• Isolates “fire air”
• Wrote “treaties on air and fire” • German-Swedish pharmaceutical chemist • Discovered oxygen, but Priestley published his findings first |
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Cavendish
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•1808-1881 Discovered hydrogen
• Phlogiston theory: Called hydrogen flammable air /fire needs dephlogistinated air to burn. • Cavendish experiment- his measurement of the Earth’s density, and early research into electricity. • Made flammable air by combining metals and strong acids |
Independently discovered (but never published):
1. Ohm’s Law 2. Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures 3. Coulomb’s Law 4. Charles’ Law of Gases |
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Marie-Anne Paulze
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•1758-1836 Married Lavoisier
• Served as Lavoisier’s assistant, illustrator and translator (English & Latin) • Father was member of Ferme Generale (General Farm-financers) • French • Popularized his experiments because the experiments were detailed enough to follow. |
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Marat
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• Swiss born physician
• Killed Lavoisier during the French revolution • Mezmerism: believed this was a science. • Developed an animosity towards the Academy in general and Lavoisier in particular • Journalist from the French Revolution • College until he was 16 then he taught himself |
• “Man has the right to deal with his oppressors by devouring their palpitating hearts.”
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Pholgiston:
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• John Becher introduced the idea that there was an element (terra pinguis) contained within combustible matter that was released upon combustion
• Georg Stahl introduces the term • Nearly weightless inflammable principle |
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Combustion
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or burning is the sequence of exothermic reactions between a fuel and an oxidant accompanied by the production of heat and conversion of chemical species. The release of heat can result in light in the form of either glowing or a flame.
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Calcination
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a thermal treatment process used to bring about a thermal decomposition, phase transition, or removal of a volatile fraction. Normally takes place at temperatures below melting point.
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Nomenclature
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naming chemical compounds in chemistry. With this we know what to mix and what reacts with one another
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Conservation of Matter
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• Also known as principle of mass/matter conservation
• mass cannot be created/destroyed, although it may be rearranged in space, and changed into different types of particles. |
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Stoichiometry
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the calculation of quantitative (measurable) relationships of the reactants and products in a balanced chemical reaction (chemicals).
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Lavoisier’s Chemical Revolution
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based on the law of conservation of matter and the discovery of oxygen. Centered on the work of Lavoisier
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LAVOISIER
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• “the importance of this subject has prompted me once more to undertake all this work, which seemed to me destined to bring about a revolution in physics and chemistry.”-
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MARC-AUGUSTE PICTET
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• “chemistry itself has undergone a great revolution.”-
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LAVOISIER
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• “All the young scientists adopt the new theory and thence conclude that the revolution is accomplished in chemistry.”-
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-COHEN
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• “Lavoisier’s chemical revolution passes all the tests for a revolution in science. The Chemical revolution is thus a paradigmatic example of a revolution in science.”
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-MARAT
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• “To ensure public tranquility, two hundred and seventy-thousand heads more should fall.”
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-MARQUIS DE SADE
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• “Like Jesus, Marat loved ardently the people, and only them. Like Jesus, Marat hated kings, nobles, priests, rogues and he never stopped fighting against these plagues of people.”
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Director of Cavendish laboratory @ Cambridge
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Thompson directed and then Rutherford
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John Dalton
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• school teacher, meteorology was a significant scientific interest.
• Made tables of elements. (Lavosier listed—Dalton ordered them by mass—Mendeleev made a table of elements: left spaces in the table) |
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Daltons Atomic Theory
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1. gasses in the atmosphere
2. all matter is composed of submicroscopic, invisible, indestructible atoms 3. all atoms of the same element are identical 4. atoms combine to form compounds in simple whole number ratios 5. chemical reactions occur when atoms are joined, separated or rearranged |
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Dimitri Mendeleev
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1834-1907 • made the periodic table based off daltons atomic theory.
• Used his periodic table to predict other elements. |
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Marie Curie
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discovered elements give off heat and glow after being exposed to light (coloneum/uranium): received two noble prizes
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JJ Thompson
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• Professor of experimental physics.
• Identified the electron and measured its mass and charge. • Set off a chain of discovery that led to atomic structure. • Thompson’s plum pudding model: showed what he thought an atom looked like. |
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Ernest Rutherford:
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•1871-1937 New Zealand chemist and physicist who became known as the father of nuclear physics
identified the nucleus • Gold foil Experiment: showed a particle refracting. They can’t see the particles all they see is flashes of light • Emitted an alpha particle and some particles bounced back- proving the existence of a dense nucleus. “shooting a gun and it bounces back to you” |
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Radioactivity
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radiation particles are very predictable: energy, radiation, particle.
Alpha particles are being emitted: 2protons and 2neutrons bonded together. Weighs less because it is giving off energy Low penetration but high diffusion |
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Alpha particle
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: 2 protons and 2 neutrons bonded together
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LUCRETIUS
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• “A natural consequence of their hardness and solidity and the absence of anything behind to stop them.”-
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James Watt
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• created a steam engine so that factories did not have to be by running water.
• Realized factories had to be near water |
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James Joule:
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• conservation of heat and work.
• Paddle wheel experiment • William Thompson met joule at the conservation convention • Thought that the “work” was consumed and turned into heat. |
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Emile Clapeyron:
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• rephrased carnot’s work, heat cycle. (carnot had rejected it don’t worry)
• The engine returns to its initial state after each cycle. |
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Emile Clapeyron:
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• rephrased carnot’s work, heat cycle. (carnot had rejected it don’t worry)
• The engine returns to its initial state after each cycle. |
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James Watt
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• created a steam engine so that factories did not have to be by running water.
• Realized factories had to be near water |
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James Joule:
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• first law of thermodynamics
conservation of heat and work. • Paddle wheel experiment • William Thompson met joule at the conservation convention • Thought that the “work” was consumed and turned into heat. |
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Emile Clapeyron:
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• rephrased carnot’s work, heat cycle. (carnot had rejected it don’t worry)
• The engine returns to its initial state after each cycle. |
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Emile Clapeyron:
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• rephrased carnot’s work, heat cycle. (carnot had rejected it don’t worry)
• The engine returns to its initial state after each cycle. |
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William Thompson
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• Temper Emile Clapeyron:ature
• Conserved theory (energy is neither created nor destroyed) • Thermo-dynamics (termed this phrase) • Force to energy • Interaction of particles • 2 laws: indestructibility and dissipation of energy |
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Rudolf Clausius
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• thought that heat and work were equivalent.
• Heat flows from high to low (but some of this heat can be lost along the way) • The laws of thermodynamics!!! • The energy of the universe is constant. |
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W.J. Rankine
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• Scottish engineer and physicist
• Researched in thermodynamics pertaining to an absolute temperature scale • One of the founders of thermodynamics • Absolute temoerature scale (absolute zero) 3rd law of thermodynamics |
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Imponderable Fluids: Ether
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the area between anything.. a substance that filled the gaps. (later proved wrong)
Light was believed to be a liquid |
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Heat Engine:Steam engine
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a mechanical device designed to transform heat into work.
Pumped water out of mines Cold water cools steam down and is then reheated to make the lever work Watt improved it- 1763 (?) perpetual motion |
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Conservation of Energy is constant and entropy (disorder) tends to a maximum
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1st and 2nd laws of thermodynamics:
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• “it is quite possible that in the production of work…a certain portion of heat may be consumed, an a further portion may be transmitted from a warm body to a cold one.”-
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CLAUSIUS
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-WILLIAM THOMPSON
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• “we cant destroy heat, only God can”
• “heat is not a substance but a state of motion”- |
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• The term energy can now be applied to ordinary motion and mechanical power, chemical action heat light, electricity, magnetism, and all other powers, know and unknown, which are convertible or commensurable with these.”-
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RANKINE
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Joly
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•1857-1933 Irish physicist
• Famous for his development of radiotherapy in the treatment of cancer • Also known for developing techniques to accurately estimate the age of a geolo bbgical period based on radioactive elements present in minerals • Known for cohesion-tension theory • Salt clock • Boyle Medal |
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Compte de Buffon:
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• French naturalist, mathematician, cosmologist and encyclopedia author.
• Published Histoire naturelle/ Epics of Nature • Father of all thought in natural history in the second half of the 18th century. • First application of experiment to problems of geology • Cooling of metal spheres of various diameters. • Secretly believed 3 billion years for earth to cool to current temperature. |
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kelvin
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• British mathematical physicist and engineer
• Also known as “William Thomson” or Lord Kelvin • Professor of Natural Philosophy at Glasgow • Kelvin scale- absolute zero • Second law of thermodynamics • First transatlantic cable • Cooling argument • First UK scientist be elevated to the House of Lords. |
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Chamberlain:
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• American geologist and educator
• Decay in crust • Believed heat came from other sources • Founded journal of technology • Ponders age of the earth by studying half life decay of elements |
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Holmes:
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• British Geologist
• Estimated 1.64billion years old • Performed the first uranium-lead radiometric dating (used to date rocks from Ceylon) • Wrote “The Age of The Earth” • Continental drift |
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Isochron dating-
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allowed the development of absolute timescale. (Holmes discovers this)
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Patterson:
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• “Age of the Meteorites and the Earth”
• U.S. geochemist • Used uraniumlead dating by using lead isotopic data from the Canyon Diablo meteorite • Calculated the age of the Earth most accurately • He is the reason why lead is banned |
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MAILLET: 1st person to take scientific view of dating the earth.
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• “Let us not measure the past duration of the world by that of our own years.”-
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-KELVIN
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“it is quite certain the solar system cannot have gone on even as at present, for a few hundred thousand or a few million years, without the irrevocable loss (by dissipation) of a very considerable proportion of the entire energy initially in store for sun heat.”
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contradicts the wave theory of light. Energy quanta localized at points in space (light in “chunks”)
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1. Photoelectric Effect:
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uses a kinetic theory and statistical mechanics to explain Brownian motion. Provided evidence for atoms- led even Ostwald to accept the existence of atoms
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2. Brownian Motion:
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Einstein
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• Planned to prove the existence of the atom.
• Used planks constant (math) to explain the photoelectric effect: light comes bundled in little packages- not a continuous stream. (Noble Prize) • Light quanta: light in bundles |
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Liebniz
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1646-1716 • German philosopher, polymath and mathematician
• Invented infinitesimal calculus • Binary system- the foundation of virtually all modern computer architectures • Mostly remembered for optimism- God created the best possible Earth |
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Minkowski
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• German mathematician of polish/Jewish decent
• Used geometrical methods to solve difficult problems • Theory of relativity • Geometrical reformulation of Einstein’s ideas. |
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Gauss
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• German mathematician and scientist
• “Prince of mathematicians” • Developed a theory of curved surfaces • Conversion from co-ordinate distance (map) to real distance requires a metric tensor • These will differ by location so will require a metric field |
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Reimann
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• German mathematician
• Made lasting contributions to analysis and differential geometry that led to general relativity • Generalized Gauss’s ideas to spaces of higher dimensions • The required metric tensor for 4D space (a manifold) had ten components |
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Dyson
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• English astronomer
• Used his research to confirm Einstein’s theory of the effect of gravity on light • Solar eclipses were his research methods |
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Eddington:
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• British astrophysicist
• Did Einstein’s experiment with bending light around stars • “check statistics” • gold backed currency • eddington limit: natural limit to luminosity of the stars • theory of relativity |
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Special relativity:
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applies to constant velocity, “inertial motion”. But we live in a world of gravity, which causes acceleration…what happens if the observer is accelerating?
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General relativity:
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• Einstein
• Geometric theory of gravity: describes gravity as a geometric property of space and time |
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Inertial reference frame:
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every physical law takes the same form in each such frame.
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Absolute time and space: (Newton)
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• Do not depend upon physical events
• every object has an absolute state of motion relative to absolute space, so that an object must be either in a state of absolute rest, or moving at some absolute speed • time is measured by duration of motion |
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Principal of relativity:
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the laws of physics have the same form in all intertial referance systems
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The light postulate:
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light propagates through empty space with a speed independent of the speed of the emitting body
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Invariance theory:
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laws of physics (and the constants) do not change for different observers. ie are invariant, but measurements of time and space are relative to the observer. Laws of physics are constant, but measurments of time and space are different
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Mass-energy equivalency
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A mass at rest has “rest energy” distinct from classical kinetic and potential energies
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Simultaneity
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two things happening at the same time. Having to do with time and space and the lack of absolute simultaneity
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Principle of equivalence:
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In the physics of general relativity, the equivalence principle refers to several related concepts dealing with the equivalence of gravitational and mass, and to Albert Einstein's assertion that the gravitational "force" as experienced locally while standing on a massive body (such as the Earth) is actually the same as the pseudo-force experienced by an observer in a non-inertial (accelerated) frame of reference.
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Field equations:
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an equation in a physical theory that describes how a fundamental force (or a combination of such forces) interacts with matter.
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Tests of relativity: proposed by Einstein
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1. the perihelion precession of Mercury's orbit
2. the deflection of light by the Sun 3. the gravitational redshift of light |
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• general theory of relativity - problem: gravitational attraction would caused the universe to collapse.
• Cosmological constant: anti-gravitational effect. |
Einstein:
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• russian mathematician.
• Is the universe expanding? |
Friedman:
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• priest famous for proposing the big bang theory
- suggested that in an expanding universe, galaxies should be retreating at a velocity proportional to their distance from us |
Lemaitre:
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• variable stars: stars that change their brightness over time.
• Leavitt studied these stars over time and saw how long it took for them to change. • Used the brightness to measure distance. |
Leavitt:
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Hubble:
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• discovered a cepheid in Andromeda and measured the distance and found it to lie beyond the milky way.
• Made the largest telescope of its time. • Relationship distance - distance and how fast it is moving away from us. |
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Gamow:
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Thinks that there should be a literal "echo" of the big bang sound
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the universe evolves but remains unchanged and eternal.
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Hoyle:
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• priest, suggested that in an expanding universe, galaxies should be retreating at a velocity proportional to their distance from us
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Lemaitre:
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• variable stars: stars that change their brightness over time.
• Leavitt studied these stars over time and saw how long it took for them to change. • Used the brightness to measure distance. |
Leavitt:
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Hubble:
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• discovered a cepheid in Andromeda and measured the distance and found it to lie beyond the milky way.
• Made the largest telescope of its time. • Relationship distance - distance and how fast it is moving away from us. |
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Gamow:
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Thinks that there should be a literal "echo" of the big bang sound
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the universe evolves but remains unchanged and eternal.
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Hoyle:
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