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42 Cards in this Set
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Socrates
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Socratic Method - through questioning we are able to draw forth the knowledge which resides within; knowledge is innate and can be released through reason... immortal soul that can't be confined to our body and didn't end in death
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Plato
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Socrates most famous student... ... believed that we observed individual events and create categories.. Inductive Reasoning and scientific Method... from specific to general... larger category more real than any individual event..the general idea of something is purer than any individual substantiation of that category... soul=mind.. soul resided in the mind ... soul inhabits the body on 3 levels: thought or reason, spirit or will, appetite or desire
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Aristole
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trained by plato... he was an empiricist who focused on the immediate world... often thought of as the 1st psychologist and father of zooology... Causation: not a simple one dimensional aspect... o Material cause - any object has a material cause (that out of which something is made – essential to understand and necessary (wood table… wood))
o formal cause – this distinguishes it from all others (form or shape of it) identifying property (shape of the table) this is what carries the information value… o Efficient cause – that by whose action something is done or made the (creator of the table) o Final cause – the reason for which something is done Logic/deductive reasoning - define an object, construct proposition about the object, test the proposition….e.g. white reflects light, snow is white, therefore snow reflects light)… every statement is either true or false… deductions begin with a general truth and go to the specific.. inductive goes from specific to general… theories mostly come from deductive reasoning… science is usually from specific to general … Also talked about memory – he thought that memory must be based on something within us.. like an internal picture.. images are not received effectively if your tablet is not in optimal condition (too old, too young..etc). distinguishes from memory and recollection (memory retrieval and can’t take place without memory)… memory is spontaneous retrieval and can happen without recollection… o he thought about laws of association the law of contiguity – when we think of something we tend to think of things that were experienced with it) the law of frequency – the more times things are experienced the easier it is to recall the law of similarity – when we think of something we tend to think of things similar to it the law of contrast – when we think of something we tend to think of things that are opposite to it |
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Epictetus
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self-control and absolute lawfulness of nature, virtue is found in an ascetic existence found when you denied yourself pleasure, hedonic things are suspect and should not be pursued) he focused on things that we could control, and it’s about our perception of things, staying in harmony with nature by saying what happens in nature was meant to be…. aligns mostly with Ellis rational emotive therapy…. puts the focus on other instead of self
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What was going on in the 1600s that made it fertile ground for Descartes
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1) Clock making - mechanical, idea that you could take things apart, look at them, and build something from complex from these molecular pieces and there was a particular rule governing these that you could intervene and fix
2) Automata - mechanical figures that moved hydraulically • Moral: the methods of science were gaining ground and that we need to manipulate and change things and experiment to arrive at an answer as opposed to the typical philosopher of before…. laws of physics that operate out in the world may operate in the human as well.. move toward precise measurement in quantitative form… |
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Descartes
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most imp work for psyc was his attempt to resolve the mind-body phenomenon/dilemma... the world said mind belonged to the earth and the soul went to the heavens mind reigned over body and flesh was weak but Descartes proported that the body was liek the earth/animal then you didn't have to pay as much attention to it.. pay more attention to he mind..he decided that the mind/spirit/soul and the body are separate independent entities and of no account is the mind reducible to matter .. I think therefore I am.. he was the ffirst to say that the body could also infleunce the mind... he called them animal motivations .. and they are so strong they can overrule the mind... he thought that the peneal land was where the mind and body communicated... realized the limitations of the senses... he was a sketpic.. doubted everything... no way of knowing if anything that we are perceiving is real.... overall psychology - controls passions by not dwelling on it (sounds a little CBT)
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Protopsychologist
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started the work and started the path towards psychologist... focused on sensation and perception because ti was easily testable and it was the window to the inner workings of the human...
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Physicalists -
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• Moral: the methods of science were gaining ground and that we need to manipulate and change things and experiment to arrive at an answer as opposed to the typical philosopher of before…. laws of physics that operate out in the world may operate in the human as well.. move toward precise measurement in quantitative form… .
ex: Mueller, Weber, Von Helmholtz, Fetchner, Wundt, |
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Mueller
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certain nerves are created to capture certain kinds of stimulation… he pushed on his eye and saw light/image… he said no matter how you stimulate it … you see sight… he showed how sensory stimulation is transferred between nerves and brains
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Weber
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identified the just noticeable difference (the amount of sensory change required for us to register the sensory change)… Webers law states that how much of a change is needed to register a change… realized that the just not. dif is a proportion of the stimulus instead of just an absolute value… and this varies across senses… our ability to discriminate in sight and sounds are more well defined and taste is the least.. he also showed the two point threshold.. how much distance you need to tell there is two stimuli.. difference across areas (lips more sensory cells and back less)
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Von Helmholtz
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not mentally ill talked about as the greatest scientific mind ever.. many of his findings still hold true… interested in color vision (tri-chromatic theory - when we are thinking about color vision there might be nerves that only respond for certain colors) proponent process theory (after images in complementary color because if one is on the other is off) theory of pitch perception; most imp contribution was to look at the speed of neural conduction … once people realized that the it was happening quickly people thought they could never capture it but he used frog leg muscles (90 ft per second)… since its “slow” people could capture it… he also distinguish between sensation and perception – sensation is the actual biochemical reaction and perception is what you make of it… he also argued that perception is learned and sensation is innate.. (shape or size constancy – that size and shape are held constant independent of that perception with distance) first to show that perception is learned by using distorted vision glasses
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Fetchner
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the most important non psychologist to us… very productive initially and then he had a breakdown (that we may not think is bipolar) he then thought that consciousness exists in all matter (when he came up with this he was manic) he came up with three methods of assessing psycho-physics (used with sensory input) that we continue to use now:
Method of average error – (used 50 percent threshold .. making sure that the reaction occurs at least half of the time) similar to finding the mean difference.. have a standard stimulus and you adjust another stimulus and you adjust it until it seems the same as the standard… you can adjust both Method of constant stimuli – adjusting but one of the stimuli doesn’t change… it is a target Method of limits – 2 stimuli are the same and adjust it until they can tell its difference many people could argue that he was the first psychologist… we give that to Wundt but he decided he was going to found a new discipline.. but Fetchner was just doing work that layed the groundwork for it… to found a discipline requires intentionality |
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Wundt
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founded first laboratory in Liebnzig... fully developed the experimental methods that would shape the next 2 generations of psychologists.. argued that mental processes could be studied experimentally....studied with Mueller... worked as Helmoltz's lab assistant... he began to ascertin that the mind can be understood experimentally in a new discipline of psychology... instrumental in studying our field but what he studied didn't have staying power... goal of psychology was to discover the facts of consciousness, its combinations and relations, and through this one may ultimately discover the laws that govern these relations and combinations large categories are: volunteerism and volker-psychology… volunteerism is what spawned our … it is experimental psychology that defined consciousness (consisting of the sum total effects of which we are conscious) he broke it down into 2 factors: the content of the experience and how it was interpreted (process of the experience).. most interested in the process of the experience… how you interpreted it… research on experience he considered to be the distinguished factor from biology and physiology … psychology is interested in how we take that and experience it.. the natural science=not related to individual… psychology=related to indidivudal and how it is understood.. he split this into the mediate experience and the immediate experience… natural sci was interested in the mediate experience (the obj itself and its characteristics) …. psychology was the immediate experience (individuals judgments and understandings about the experiences).. the experience within the individual… called his work volunteerism because he thought that the mind volitionally organizes elements into higher organized processes … he thought that memory and learning can’t be studied because an individual can’t reflect on it consistently.. Introspection (trained observes in mentally observing their experience of a stimuli) – observers must be alert, be in a state of readiness and strained attention, and it must be possible to repeat the observation multiple times… must be possible to vary experimental conditions while controlling everything else..he thought that psychologist belong in a lab and his goal was pure basic science.. animal and child research can’t be done because they can’t introspect.. • He said that everything has 2 aspects: mediate (the item itself; the natural sciences part) and immediate (your experience of the item; psychology’s part)
• He was very adamant that the purpose of basic science was experiments and NOT APPLIED… he felt like the Americans were too interested in the applied things…. |
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Mesmerism
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founder is Frans Mesmer...Mesmer used magnents to influence the body… discover “animal magnetism” …. he thought that the magements reordered their animal magnetism and alter their state… … in US it all peaked in 1960s… why was mesmerism able to take hold? this was the age of reform and change and so people were more willin to accept the novel idea… people also were craving lectures and literature so they ate up the publications and the show… also appealing because of the clairvoyance and connecting with dead with people who lost someone in the civial war… Fall of mesmerism … letting non-professionals do it, lot of self-help book, different terminology…
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Phrenology
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founder gall.... through external examination of the brain you could tell the development of the different faculties... 1800s the brain became an object of major study… Gall brought it into the forefront saying that different areas served different functions.. he used dissection to understand the brain better… he was a comparative analyst… compared across ages and species… phrenology was not very accepted by scientists.. went right past them to general public… it was very popular in public… started whole idea because he good memorizers smart people had bulgy eyes… said part behind eyes is memorizing… Florens had a lot to do with fall out of phrenology… he wanted to take out parts and found that no matter how much you took out the more = more disfunction..
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Ebbinhaus
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• Apply the experimental method to the scientific processes.
• Chose to begin research in memory in learning • looked at the forgetting curve – we forget the most quickly, initial forgetting is the most rapid (the first hour) after the first hour it stays much longer… • Primacy and Recency effects – you are able to remember the stuff you learn early and late and the middle gets jumbled • Speed of memorize the list of syllables vs meaning – meaning last longer • Savings Percentage = (number of trials learned the first time – number of trials learned the second time)/number of trials learned the first time |
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Tichner
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• Study form and character of consciousness … the structure of consciousness not the purpose
• Very rigorous in his lab practice… his manuals were the only thing that held up over time.. gold standard • very invested in the work of experimentation… that psychology needs to stay in the lab!!! NOT APPLIED!! • founded group called experimentalists… no women.. huge emphasis on experimentation |
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G. Stanley Hall
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• He founded the first psychology lab in the US at John Hopkins University
• got his doctorate from there from James and was the first doctoral degree awarded in the US • key for the professionalization of psychology • created the first journal of psychology in the US The Journal of Psychology • founded another lab at Clark in 1889… served as president at Clark • Created APA and was its first president… realized that psychology needed to have a strong professional orientation • stimulated something called the child study movement ( involved a lot of research) • used questionnaire method • seminal work used ____ methods…. heavily influenced by__________.... dealt with adolescence issues.. too racy involving sexual issues.. • instrumental in … he brought Freud and Jung to speak at Clark.. Freud’s only visit • first to mentor an African American at the PHD level |
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Cattel
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• Started studying with hall but had a falling out… they had a fellowship ($) there was a dispute about some data…
• academic testing – reaction times can predict intelligence.. he thought all information goes through the senses – at Penn he focused on individual differences .. these are called anthroprometric tests (measuring man’s qualities) • convinced people to give this to every incoming student for 10 years… found 0 correlations • he founded two journals: Psyc review and Psy Bulletin • coined the term mental test • he was the editor of the journal of science for 50 years… he bought the journal when it was floundering and turned it into the premire journal in the field |
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History of IQ Testing
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Psychology was built on two pillars: cognitive testing and what was going on in the lab (experimental)
Intelligence was a core function of psychology. We were assessors first. History of IQ Testing • We have always been fascinated by what intelligence is. Empirical value in the 1800s. • Early people who were influenced by this they were also influenced by comparative psychology (what is the difference between a rat brain and a cat brain…etc) • The first way we decided to measure intelligence started with craniology (measuring head size as indicative of intelligence) |
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Francis Galton
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Galton contributed to our modern view of the world very interested in heritability ... very influenced by Darwinian theory he took the idea of natural selection and placed it on humans socially and intellectually... pioneer of mdern stats.. discovered the correlation coefficient and regression to the mean (extreme values moderate over time).. believed you can quantify and assess anything .... everything is inherited... coined the term eugenics (improving social qualities by restricting reproduction.. promoted social darwinism.. Eugenics finally lost favor in US as the details of the Holocaust was coming out... he used eugenics to control who produced... thought genius could be measured on headsize (phrenology)
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Paul Broca
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influential craniologist.. redemmed himself with Broca's area... first to compare groups across race... looking for reliable differences and the right order of their differences
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Binet
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ended the craniology era with his student/teacher study where he saw his own bias... Binet focused his IQ testing on categorizing people with the goal of remediation... when head size didn't work he decided to use basic tasks that would indicate IQ he wanted to capture ability not achievement not learned skills... this was the standford binet (1905.. ascendign order of difficulty ..1908.. age level).. optimistic about remediation... refused to equate the score with IQ... blieved abilities are mutli-dimensional... Reinfication fallacy (giving something a name that may n ot exist whih makes it exist) Binet feared that it may be perverted and be a)a label b)to eliminate children schools don’t want to deal with 3) self-fulfilling prophecy for low scorers
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Goddard
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brought the scales to the US... thought they were perfect for what he needed he was very strong on eugenics.. people who are defective should be refrained from reproducing.. he said the hardest to detect was the high grade defectives.Idiots lowest.. then imbuciles.. then moron.. Goddard did not ue for remediation purposes and wanted to categorize to sterilize and prevent reproduction... the scores WERE intelligence...
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Terman
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popularized binet skills…..extended the limits to include adult functioning … Binet scales have a higher ceiling and a lower floor… Terman hoped that all children would be tested in order to sort them into their proper station in life… this became the standard of which the other tests were compared.... it became the stanford binet scales
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Yerkses
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established the profession of psychology by establishin mental testing... tested all the recruits for WW1... he only did this to acquire data... shifted from 1 on 1 to group testing… Army Alpha was for literate recruits and it was a written test… Army Beta was for illiterate recruits and was pictorial … both were administered in groups and if you failed the Army beta you could retake it again individually….very biased to educated individuals and exposure to the larger America culture.. pracitical use for the army used to give people roles…he found that there were strong racial differences.. blacks scoring worse than whites… (blacks took beta more often) even in the whites the darker the skin the more poorly they performed… even white recruits had a low mental age.. the average mental age of the white recruits were 13 years…lead to the Immigration restriction act of 1924.. lead to sterilization laws and gov not allowing jews to escape holocaust becaust of the immigration laws…
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Walter Lipmen
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prominent opposer of intelligence testing and eugenics movement. he attacked ppl who said IQ measured innate ability and said were stamping lables of inferiority ..
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Spearman
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biggest advocate of the IQ testing movement... he came up with g.. which is general intelligence..he believed there is a large innate general factor that allowed people to do many things well… believed there would be a direct linkage between skill in one area to skill in another area…. he believed in the social order… he argued that those that do well on intelligence should be put in large of everything… though he said you don’t’ need to use these tests because you could pull those with the highest marks in college because intelligence is unitary…
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Mental Hygiene Movement
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let’s do all those things as early as possible to put people on the right path… they latched onto the testing market to solidify the role of the psychologist… it was an objective way to categorize kids…because of the third party
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Kompte
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founder of positivism (emphasizes positive knowledge or facts.. the truth of which was not debatable) His belief was that the only valid knowledge is only social in nature and directly/objectively observable and agreed upon.. these are the only things that exists… early behaviorists talk about this as well
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Animal Psychology
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Behaviorism is a direct outgrowth of the study of animal behavior in studies in the early 20th Cent. (WATSON)
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Watson
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intentinally set about to create a new type of psychology that focused only on what an be seen heard or touched NOT MENTAL STATES... he wanted us to not stay in our labs, but after we find a solution in our labs to go out and apply it to the world... 1910 APA prez.. kicked him out of chair at JH because of scandal with grad student who facilitated div and married her… no more psyc…career in advertising
• 1928 published psychology care of infant/child… he thought parents job was to think about external conditions… no affections • Scientific psyc that only dealt with observable, objective acts… in terms of stimulus-response • rejected all mentalist concepts • goal of his psyc was to predict and control behavior.. the subjects themselves were less important • children could be trained into whatever he wanted me to be • most famous experiment: little albert • he believed that all behavior is a result of conditioning • Contributions of Watson: made psyc more objective in methods and terminology .. first to say that everything produced should be samples of behavior.. ideas stimulated a great deal of research… behaviorism still out there today.. objective methods and language become mainstream … classical conditioning |
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Thorndike
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1st American psychologist to receive all of his education in US .. important researcher in the development of animal psyc… objective mechanistic psychology that focused on overt behavior… he believed that psyc must study behavior and not mental acts… and he reinforced the trend to greater objectivity… he called his work connectionism… because he interpreted learning as concrete connections between learning and stimuli and responses.. most famous for animal studies and 2 primary laws derived from it.. he used something called the puzzle box used to study animal learning… the law of effect (acts that produce satisfaction in a certain situation they produce reproduction… particularly when we are in the same situation as before) law of exercise (more an act or response is used in a specific situation the more that the act is used again in the same situation.. conversely prolonged disuse of the response results in decrease of the behavior) Operant conditioning ( you are doing something .. I am going to hit this lever because I want a certain outcome) Classical conditioning (we have conditioned outcomes over which we have no control)
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Systematic Desensitization
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Wolpe and Plaude founded this on pavlovian principles .where you present a graded exposure to feared stimuli and pair the feared stimuli with a calming stimuli .. you are replacing a fear response with another kind of response… you can’t feel both fear and calming responses at the same time…this is more classical based on classical… there is a small operant piece but it will get so learned that it becomes automatic..
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Classical Conditioning
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stimulus-response is a passiv response by the organism
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Operant Conditioning
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stimulus-response is an active response by the organism
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Neo-behaviorists
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• Three core belief shared:
o core of psychology is the study of learning o most behavior no matter how complex can be understood by the laws of conditioning o psychology must adopt the principle of operationism (the validity of any finding rests on the validity of the operations used in arriving at that finding…e.g. the concept becomes equivalent to the measuring device…length and a ruler) • All concepts that can’t be directly measured are meaningless to science… so concepts like personal consciousness which can’t be manipulated experimentally are outside the scope of science .. questions of the mind are irrelevant EX: Tolman, Hull, Skinner |
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Tolman
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Latent Learning – shown in rat experiment… that after letting rats run around in a maze that they didn’t only learn through reinforcement… they had a mental map as soon as he put food in they found.. he called this gestalt signs…. he thought all behavior was goal directed and he called it purposive behaviorism.. so rather than direct reinforcement it was the purpose of getting to the food that drove the behavior/learning… things that cause behavior: environmental stimuli, physiological drive, heredity, previous training or age… between the stimulus and the response there will be an intervening variable (Unobserved and inferred factors within the organism that are the actual determinants of behavior).. he rejected that reinforcement played a large role in learning
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Hull
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o he wanted to create mathematical equations for all types of behaviors,,, most cited person during his era…he came up with the idea of drive thery… at the heart of behavior there is a drive which is a bodily need that arose from a deviation from optimal biological conditions..similar to Freud’s theory
o Hypothetico-deductive method – you have a set of postulates (organizing principles)… than you derive hypothesis.. then test them and you find whether you have corroborated or not your hypothesis…if you don’t revision is necessary.. |
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Skinner
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o explain things in stimulus-response
o manipulate the environment you change the outcome o you can control nature but nature ultimately set the rules of the game o you can’t teach an animal something that isn’t in his behavioral repertoire o he believed that if you put everyone in a perfect utopian environment that people will act good o Four elements of operant conditioning: positive reinforcement – giving something to encourage behavior..increases behavior negative reinforcement – taking away a bad thing to increase behavior (taking away a knife used to hurt yourself) positive punishment – something bad being inflicted to the organism decreases behavior negative punishment/response-cost – losing something good as a result of the behavior to decrease behavior o Skinner was a big proponent of reinforcement not punishment o punishment is situation specific typically o the punishment should be proportionate to the behavior |
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Leahey
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o Paradigm: set of postulates that explains things
o Normal science…..dominate paradigm o then an anomaly appears…. a problem or questions comes up that can’t be answered by the dominate paradigm … this evokes a o crisis … a scientist proposes a new solution o if you have enough people agree with the new solution.. you have a revolution.. |
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Bandura
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Social learning theorist.. o after neo-behaviorists we went int era of cog-beh theorists… largest proponent of social learning theorists….
o bo-bo doll – modeling behavior…. kids copy bad stuff… we look to others to learn what to do…learning and performance are distinct o 3 conditions in bobo doll beats up bobo doll then nothing happens beats up bobo doll then gets praised for beating up beats up bobo doll then gets verbal punishment o those kids who had the model be reinforced had the most aggression… those who had the model be punishment had least aggression… then neutral was in the middle.. but when offered candy to demonstrates previous behavior .. they all could o bandura was the first to show social learning with vicarious punishment and vic. reinforcement… meaning that the punish/reinforcement did not need to happen to the individual themselves |
