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142 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What are the main linguistic families under Indo-European?
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Italo-Celtic, Germanic, Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian.
Anatolian, Tocharian, Albanian |
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What are the main linguistic families under Anatolian?
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Hittite, Lydian, Palaic, {Luvian, Lyrian, Carian}
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What are the main linguistic families under Tocharian?
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Tocharian A, Tocharian B
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What are the main linguistic families under Albanian
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Albanian Tosk, Albanian Gheg
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What are the main linguistic families under Italo-Celctic?
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Italic, Celtic
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What are the main linguistic families under Italic?
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Sabellic, Latino-Faliscan
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What are the main linguistic families under Sabellic?
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Umbrian, Oscan
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What are the main linguistic families under Latino-Faliscan?
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Faliscan, Latin
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What are the main linguistic families under Latin?
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Sardinian, West Romance, East Romance
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What are the main linguistic families under West Romance?
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Galician, Portuguese,Spanish, Catalan, Occitan, French, Rhaeto-Romance
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What are the main linguistic families under East Romance?
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Italian, Dalmatian, Romanian
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What are the main linguistic families under Germanic?
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East Germanic, North Germanic, Wester Germanic
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What are the main linguistic families under East Germanic?
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Gothic
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What are the main linguistic families under North Germanic?
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Icelandic, Faroese, Norwegian, Swedish, Danish
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What are the main linguistic families under West Germanic?
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English, Frisian, Dutch, Afrikaans, Low German, High German, Yiddish
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What are the main linguistic families under Balto-Slavic?
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Baltic, Slavic
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What are the main linguistic families under Baltic?
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Lithuanian, Latvian, Old Prussian
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What are the main linguistic families under Slavic?
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West Slavic, South Slavic, East Slavic
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What are the main linguistic families under West Slavic?
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Sorbian, Polish, Slovak, Czech
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What are the main linguistic families under South Slavic?
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Old Church Slavonic, Slovene, Serbo-Croatian, {Macedonian, Bulgarian}
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What are the main linguistic families under East Slavic?
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Ukrainian, Belorussian, Russian
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What are the main linguistic families under Indo-Iranian?
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Iranian, Indic (Sanskrit)
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What are the main linguistic families under Iranian?
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East, West {Iranian}
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What are the main linguistic families under East Iranian?
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Khotanese, Ossetic, Sogdian, Bactrian, Avestan, Pashto
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What are the main linguistic families under West Iranian?
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Northwest Iranian, Southwest Iranian
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What are the main linguistic families under Northwest Iranian?
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Parthian, Baluchi, Kurdish
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What are the main linguistic families under Southwest Iranian?
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Tajik, Persian (Farsi)
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What are the main linguistic families under Indic (Sanskrit)?
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Assamese, Bengali, Bihari, Sinhalese, Marthi, Gujarati, Hindu-Urdu, Sindhi, Punjabi, Kashmiri, Romani
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What are the mechanics of syntactic change?
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reanalysis, extension, and borrowing
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What is syntactic reanalysis?
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A change in the underlying structure of syntactic construction that does not modify surface manifestations. AKA misinterpretation, but can be intentional
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What is the underlying structure of syntax?
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Constituency, Hierarchical structure, Grammatical categories, Grammatical relations, Cohesion
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What are the surface manifestations of syntax?
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Morphological marking (case, agreement, gender), and Word Order
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What is syntactic extension?
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A change in surface manifestation that does not immediately modify the underlying structure (similar to analogical extension, but related mainly to morphological marking and word order)
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What is syntactic borrowing?
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Like lexical borrowing, but with grammar and syntax.
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Grammaticalization
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A morpheme becomes a grammatical morpheme, or more grammatical than it was before (Romance futures)
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Semantic Bleaching
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Process of a word losing meaning
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Serial verbs often become increasingly grammatical
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markers of direct objects, etc
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Examples of syntactic change
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English Native derivational suffixes (-less, -ful, -ship, etc., come from lexical roots). Chinese copula shi<'this' English dative subjects reanalysed as nominative. Romance future inflectional ending from Latin 'have(to)' Romance reflexive /se/ reanalysed as impersonal
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Where do neologisms come from?
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Loans, bifurcations, inventions
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Bifurcations (for neologisms)
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Word senses diverge so much they are now thought to be separate words
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Invention (for neologisms)
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Morphemes are rarely invented from nothing. Seeming cases inspired by something else: often imitative, onomatopoeia, sound symbolic (people associate a vague meaning with part of a word, and recycle it to make new words)
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Compounds (neologism)
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Two roots are combined in one word.
Rarely equally exactly the sum of their parts. |
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Derivation (neologism)
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Affixes are added to a word. Over time, roots may turn into affixes. Rarely equally exactly the sum of their parts
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Amalgamation (neologisms)
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A phrase is treated as a single word (manywordcompound)
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Conversion
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Changing a word to another part of speech without changing the ending
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Reanalysis
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Getting word or morpheme boundaries wrong, sometimes leading to reinterpreting phonemes as a whole new root or affix. Backformation
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Clipping
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Chopping down a word or phrase without regard to its morphological composition. Sometimes endings are added to the clipped form.
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Blending
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Combining two words to give one with approximate phonological characteristics of a single word. The best cases combine two words on a common element
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Initialisms (neologism
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Combining the initial letters of a string of words, reading them off by letter names
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Acronym (neologism)
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Combining the initial letters of a string of words, reading them off as spelling a word. Backronyms: the acronym is at least as important as the original phrase
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Syllabic acronyms (neologism)
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Pull in first syllable or so of several words and past together.
Sometimes (for neologisms in general) spelling is manipulated or other clever tricks employed such as reversing a word. |
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Semantic Change
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The changes in meaning of specific lexical sets, or strings of words
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Widening (generalization, extension, broadening) - semantics
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The range of meanings of a word increases so that the word can be used in more contexts. Shift from Concrete to Abstract
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Narrowing (specialization, restriction) - semantics
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The range of meanings is decreased so that a word can be used in fewer contexts. Shift from Abstract to Concrete
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Metaphor - semantics
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Extensions in the meaning of a word that suggest a semantic similarity or connection between the new sense and the original one. (involves understanding one thing in terms of another kind of thing somehow similar)
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Metonymy - semantics
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A change in the meaning of a word so that it comes to include additional senses which were not originally present but are closely related. ( ex. 'cheek' used to mean 'jawbone')
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Synecdoche - semantics
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A part to whole relationship. Term with more comprehensive meaning is used to refer to a less comprehensive meaning or vice versa. (ex. 'tongue'>'language')
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Degeneration (pejoration) - semantics
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Words take on a negative value. Applies to slurs, and impolite or rude words (ex. silly 'foolish' < OE'happy, blessed')
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Amelioration (Elevation) - semantics
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Words take on nicer connotations (ex. 'pretty' < OE praettig 'crafty, sly")
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Taboo replacement, obscenity avoidance - semantics
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Euphemisms
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Hyperbole - semantics
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Exaggeration - shifts due to overstatement. Leads to affective weakening
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Ellipsis - semantics
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To omit words from phrases (when they are superfluous)
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Polysemy - semantics
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New meanings added to old, words with multiple but separate meanings
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Root creations - neologisms
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New words coined from thin air - very rare
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Language Families
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A Family is a maximal set of languages known to be related
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Isolates
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Languages that have no other sister languges
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Monogenesis language theory
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One ancient language, branching into many others (Similar to evolutionary out-of-Africa hypothesis)
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Polygenesis language theory
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Many languages spawned remotely and around the same time
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Uralic Language family includes:
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Saami (Lapp), Finnish, Estonian, Hungarian
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Austronesian family:
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Malasgasy to Easter Island, Polynesia. Languages include Tongan, Samoan, Maori, and Hawai'ian
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Americas have close to XXX language families
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200 families (Greenberg controversially said only 3)
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American Language families include:
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Eskimo-Aleut, Algic, Athabaskan, Iroquoian, Uto-Aztecan, Mayan, Siouan, Tupian
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The Eskimo-Aleut family includes:
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Aleut, Innuit, Yupik. Geography= Alaska, Canada, Siberia
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The Algic family includes:
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Algonquian, Miami - Illionois, Ojibwa, Cheyenne. Geography = US and Canada
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The Athabaskan family includes:
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Navajo, Apache. Geography = US and Canada
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The Iroquoian family includes:
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Mohawk, Oneida, Cherokee
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The Uto-Aztecan family includes:
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Nahuatl, Hopi, Ute. Geography = Western US and Mexico
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The Siouan family includes:
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Osage, Crow, Lakota, Missouri
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The Tupian family includes:
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Tupi, Guarani
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The Afro-Asiatic family includes:
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Ancient Egyptian, Semitic languages such as Hebrew and Arabic
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The Bantu family includes:
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Swahili, Zulu, Kikuyu. Geography = Africa
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The Dravidian family includes:
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Tamil, Malayalam, Kannada, Telugu. Geography = South India
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The Sino-Tibetan family includes:
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Mandarin, Cantonese, Tibetan, Burmese. Geography = Asia.
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The Turkic family includes:
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Turkish, Uzbek, Turkmen. Geography = Central Asia
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Not provably language families:
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Altaic, Amerind, Eurasiatic, Indo-Pacific, Nostratic
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Ancient writing systems
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Hittite, Luwian, Linear B (Mycenean Greek), Ancient Greek with Phoenician alphabet
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Boustrophedon
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Writing in field-plow-styled rows (snaking left to right, right to left,and back)
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Geographic location of PIE speakers, theory
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Kurgan theory: PIE sited just north of Black Sea ca. 4000 BC, spread from there due to invention of horse-drawn wheeled chariots.
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What are the goals of the comparative method?
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Goals: prove languages are related. Reconstruct their common ancestor
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Pitfalls of comparative method:
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Loanwords, analogy, onomatopeia (sound symbolism and natural expressions), multiple counting of words with shared morphemes
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L'arbitraire du signe
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De Saussure's theory on arbitrariness in language, impractical correlation between words and historical meanings
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Junggrammatikers' Ausnahmslosigkeit der Lautgesetze
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Theory of language change; all languages chane
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How to do the comparative method?
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Align semantically matching words, find sound correspondences; convince readers that number of recurrent sound correspondences exceeds level expected by chance
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Grimm's Law
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PIE voiceless stops > Ger. voiceless fricatives
PIE voiced stops > Ger. voiceless stops PIE voiced breathy stops > Ger. voiced fricatives bʰ → b → p → f dʰ → d → t → θ gʰ → g → k → x gʷʰ → gʷ → kʷ → xʷ |
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Grassman's Law
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For Greek and Sanskrit: If an aspirated consonant is followed by another aspirated consonant in the next syllable, the first one loses the aspiration.
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Verner's Law
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For Proto-Germanic: Voiceless fricatives that immediately follow an unstressed syllable in the same word become voiced
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Occam's razor
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Assume the minimum number of changes.
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Dendrograms.
Nodes |
Dendrograms = Trees
Nodes = leaves, internal nodes, parent and child nodes, root node |
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Cladistics
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Classifies language by phylogenetic cladogenesis: language splitting, branching. Merging, transfers, anagenesis are ignored
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Cladogram
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Dendrogram where branching represents splitting of a language. Nodes represent attested or hypothesized languages
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Character
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Any linguistic trait that has usefully different states in the attested languages
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Apomorphy
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Innovation; character state that differs from parent
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Plesiomorphy
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Retention of ancestral state
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Synapomorphies
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Identical character state in multiple languages; the only true basis for positing cladogenesis
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Symplesiomorphies
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Plesiomorphic state shared by multiple languages
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Homoplasy
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conflict between characters. Can be caused by misanalysis, convergence = parallel evolution, or transfer = loan
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Ringe and Warnow
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Computer model analysis to computer "perfect" phylogeny for IE. Hard in principle to rule out all and only homoplasies yet include all relevant synapomorphies
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Swadesh lists
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100 to 200 words illustrating basic concepts in vocabulary
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Phenetics
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Classifying languages by similarity: not a very accurate way to subgroup
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Loans - Linguistic Purism.
Which countries are purists? |
Iceland (favors Norse), India vs. Pakistan (Hindi vs. Urdu), Turkey (Ataturk purged Arabic Persian and French loans), Revival of old words
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Why borrow words?
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Familiarity, highly fueled by bilingualism and diglossia
Convenience: precise, domain, concise, pretty |
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Loan Familiarity
Diglossia? What is it, Examples? Prestige? |
Diglossia: superordinate vs. subordinate languages - Haiti (Kreyol vs. French), Arabic world (Colloquial local Arabic vs. Literary universal classical)
Prestige due to use by economic, political, military, religious, and literary institutions |
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Methods of borrowing
There are 4 |
Wholesale: no adaptation, source language familiar
Adaptation: phonemes and phonotactics match borrowing language's Calquing morpheme by morpheme Invention of new words inspired by source words |
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Treatment of morphology
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original structure may remain obscure, component morphs may be translated, native affixes added to borrowed roots, if enough words borrowed, much source morphology gets incorporated
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Treatment of inflection
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source inflection may be borrowed without change of meaning, especially if languages have matching syntax. Choice of target paradigm may be arbitrary
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Examples of inflectional adaptations
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German used to assign plurals haphazardly. Swahili mostly adapts nouns into the class that has no prefix in the singular. Japanese mostly borrows verbs as invariant component in *suru* constructions
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Borrowing hierarchy for words
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1.nouns
2. verbs and adjectives 3, Grammatical words and affixes "they, because", Turkish "ve" |
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Borrowables
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Mostly lexical sets. Phonemes phonotactics and morphology as a side-effect of massive borrowing.
Syntax and stylistics, writing system |
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Waves of Borrowing into English
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1. Latin into continental Germanic
2. Latin into Prehistoric English 3. Viking Norse into Old English 4. Old French into Middle English 5. Latin and Greek into Modern English 6. worldwide culture words into Modern English |
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Latin into Prehistoric English: example words
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abott, candle, mass, pope, priest, cap, fennel, school, spend
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Viking Norse into Old English: example words
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skirt, nay, scrub, loan, raise, ill, till, flat, they, skin, egg
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Old French into Middle English
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Court, duke, baron, county, crown, trial, village, peace, enemy, arms, battle, moat, gown, robe, emerald, diamond, feast, savory, cream, sugar, commence, infant, judgement, aid, saint, charity, repast, marriage, desire, spice
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Latin and Greek into Modern English
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Exterior, appendix, delirium, contradict, exterminate, temperature, tonic, catastrophe, anonymous, lexicon, skelton
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Recent loans from "everywhere"
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moose, skunk, wigwam; condor, llama, puma, jaguar, poncho; kumquat, tycoon, tea, lychee, kung fu; bonsai, geisha, haiku, karate; chimney, guru, pundit, pyjamas, shampoo; bongo, safari, banana, yam
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Examples of contamination in analogy
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female, overt, buxom, irregardless
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Examples of hypercorrection in analogy
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coupon, cliff, drownded, sandblind, gap teeth
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Examples of folk etymologies in analogy
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garden snake, polecat, woodchuck, sockeye, mushroom, bridegroom, penthouse
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Paradigm leveling
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reducing the variant within a phonemic or morphological system to the fewest number of change options
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Examples of back formation in analogy
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Pease, cherise, diocese, diabetes.
Hamburger, burger, cheeseburger. Adder, augur, apron. Tu m'aimes-ti |
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Examples of Immediate analogy
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January, Feburary. Male and Female. Lunes, martes, miercoles, jueves. Four, five. I, J, K.
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Dendrogram leaf nodes
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have no children
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Properties of dendrograms
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the length of an edge doesnt necessarily matter. Only branching matters, orientation does not. No rejoining.
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Interpreting Cladograms
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A node represents a language extant or extinct.
An edge represents a set of apomorphies associated with a language split |
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How to come up with cladograms
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Compare existing languages with their common protolanguage, infer what minimal series of changes could account for the current languages
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Cladistic state
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a specific form a character takes in some language(s)
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Swadesh's Lexicostatistic/Glottochronology procedure
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3 or more related languages. Compute proportion of cognates. Subgroup the languages with higher cognacy measures.
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Lexicostatistic retention rates per millenium
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Englihs 0.766
Armenian 0.940 Muyuw (Woodlark Isl.) 0.060 |
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Atkinson and Gray's PIE
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Used biological phylogenetic rates by branch.
Attempted to smooth retention rates by branch. Concluded PIE broke up 7000 BC |
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Wellentheorie
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Focus on transfer instead of splits.
Dialectomerty: phenetic analysis quantifies accumulated dissimilarities across related languages or dialects |
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Centum vs. Satem
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Isogloss, split down divide through modern Western/Eastern Europe.
Satem: Palatals become more coronal, labialized velar becomes velar. Centum: Palatal becomes velar, and labialized velar |
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Fate of palatal /c/
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Italic, Celtic, Hellenic, Germanic, Tocharian - k
Slavic, Armenian, Iranian - s Baltic & Indic - /sh/ Albanian - /th/ |
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Ablaut in PIE
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Full, o, and zero grades.
Created difference between words like "sit, sat, nest, seat, soot" |
