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454 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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poikilocytosis
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varying cell shapes
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how can a Nissl stain be used to differentiate microglia from oligodendroglia?
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microglia are not discernable in a Nissl stain while oligodendroglia is (small dark nuclei w dark chromatin)
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name 2 substances produced by an eosinophil
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histaminase(/amine oxidase copper-containing), arylsulfatase (cleave phenol sulfates)
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name the two types of mononuclear leukocytes
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lymphocytes and monocytes
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what are the two functions of T cell lymphocytes?
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1 cellular immune response 2 regulation of B lymphocytes and macrophages
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what are the 2 morphological features of microglia?
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1 small irregular nuclei 2 relatively little cytoplasm
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what are the 3 functions of a macrophage?
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1 phagocytosis (bacteria, cell debris, senescent rbcs) 2 scavanges damaged cells and tissues 3 APC
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what are the 3 morphological characteristics of monocytes?
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1 large 2 kidney-shaped nucleus 3 extensive cytoplasm
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what are the 4 characteristics of the plasma cell morphology?
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1 off center nucleus 2 clock face chromatin distribution 3 abundant RER 4 well developed GA
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How can we differentiate a mucuos-producing cell from a serous-producing cell?
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mucus cell is 1 more columnar 2 less RER 3 more GA (for glycosylation) (both have granules)
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tubular gland, shape of cells
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columnar
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acinar gland, shape of cells
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pyramidal
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general structure of GIT
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1 lamina mucosa 2 lamina submucosa (loose CT, submucosal plexus of Meisser) 3 lamina muscularis externa (C, L, myenteric plexus of Auerbach) 4 Lamina adventitia/serosa
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lamina mucosa in GIT, parts
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1 epithelium (stratified squamous, columnar) 2 lamina propria (loose CT, MALT/GALT, smooth muscle) 3 lamina muscularis mucosae (C,L)
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where in GIT is it no submucosa?
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gingiva, hard palate
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Contraction of smooth muscle - evoked by
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1 Release of: neurotransmitter, hormone 2 Gap junction 3 Automatically: Interstitial cells of Cajal 4 Stretching
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Ehler-Danlos sy - cause
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Defect of procollagen peptidase or lysyl/prolyl hydroxylase (-> hyperelasticity of skin, hypermobility of joints)
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Fibers of Purkynje - differentiation
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1 Bigger 2 Pale (↑glycogen) 3 ↓Myofibrils 4 No T-tubules 5 No intercalated disks - only desmosomes and gap junctions
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Mechanism of synaptic junction
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1 Presynaptic membrane depolarization -> 2 Open Ca2+ channels 3 Ca2+ influx 4 Neurotransmitter vesicle exocytosis 5 Bind to postsynaptic receptor 6 Depolarize postsynaptic membrane
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Muscle cell/fiber/Myofiber - development
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1 Myoblast 2 Myotube 3 Myofiber
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Neuron - structure of perikaryon/soma/cell body
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1 Nucleus (↑, spherical, euchromatin, clear nucleolus) 2 ↑ER/Nissl body 3 ↑GA (only in perikaryon, send secretory vesicle) 4 Mitochondria - ↑ in axon 5 Inclusions: lipofuscin, melanin/age pigment (substantia nigra)
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Neutrophils - lobes and relation to age
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Older = more lobes (few lobes = newly formed, inflammation?, more lobes = failure to develop - nutritional deficiency?)
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Proerythroblast -> Erythrocyte, duration, what happends
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a 7d. Processes: 1 Condensation of chromatin 2 Expulsion of nucleus 3 Hb synthesis 4 Successive loss of basophilia (due to loss of polyribosomes)
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Size of smooth muscle in organs
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150-200 um
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Size of smooth muscle in vessel
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15-20 um
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Special stain for elastic fibers
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Weigert Resorcin Fuchsin
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Synaptic cleft - size
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20-30 nm
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Triad of skeletal muscle sarcomere (diad in cardiac muscle)
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2 terminal cisternae of sarcoplasmic reticulum, 1 T (transverse) tubule
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Troponins - types and functions
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Form complex. 1 Troponin T: bind to tropomyosin 2 Troponin C: can bind to Ca2+ 3 Troponin I: bind to actin
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White vs brown fat - structure of cell
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White: unilocular (lipid droplet), peripheral nucleus. Brown: multilocular, central nucleus, ↑mitochondria, thermogenin
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Z-disk equivalence in smooth muscle
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Dense bodies (α-actinin involvement)
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Collagen - location of types
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Type one: bone, Type two: carTWOlage, Type four: floor (basement membrane)
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Epiphyseal plate - layers
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Real people have calcified osseus. Resting zone (reserves), Proliferative zone, Hypertrophic zone, Calcified cartilage, Ossificatio zone
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Erythropoiesis stages
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Powerful business pollute our reeling environment: Proerythroblast, Basophilic erythroblast, polychromatic erythroblast, Othrochromatophilic erythroblast, Reticulocyte, Erythrocyte
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Layers of the epidermis
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Granpa shagging grandma's love child: Germinativum, Spinosum, Granulosum, Lucidum, Corneum
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Muscle fiber - types
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Type 1: 1 slow fat red ox. Slow = twitch, fat = lipid accumulation, red = fibers, oxidative. Type 2 = 2 fast skinny white breasts: fast twitch, low lipid, white fibers (like chicken breasts)
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Muscle sarcomere - H line vs Z disc location
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HAZI(hazy = overskyet), H line in is in A-band, Z disc is in I band
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Schwann cell - myelinates 1/many axons?
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SchWANN = sounds like one (a single Schwann cell only myelinates one PNS axon)
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3rd molar, time of eruption
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15-25th year
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ameloblasts, structure, secrete
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columnar, tomes processes, secrete enamelin and amelogenin
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deciduous teeth, time of eruption
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6th month-2years
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ectoderm of teeth organ give rise to
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enamel organ
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epithelium of tongue
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non-keratinized stratified squamous, filiform papillae is keratinized
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mesenchyme of neural crest origin of teeth give rise to
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dentin, cement, periodontal ligaments
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mixed salivary glands
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submandibular, sublingual
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mucus-producing salivary glands
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Weber's glands (to trough of circumvallate papillae)
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muscle of esophagus
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upper 1/3 = skeletal, middle 1/3 - mix of skeletal-smooth, lower 1/3 - smooth
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odontoblasts, structure, secrete
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columnar, odontoblastic processes, secrete predentin (non-mineralized)
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permanent teeth, time of eruption
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6th-7th year
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reciprocal induction between ectoderm and mesenchyme of teeth development, morphogens
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BMF-4 (bcl-2 modifiying factor) (both), FGF-8 (ectoderm), BMP-2 (bone morphogenic protein 2) (ectoderm)
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serous salivary glands
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parotid gland
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soft palate, lips, cheeks - structure
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keratinized epithelium, papillae in lamina propria, salivary glands in submucosa
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types of papilla
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1 filiform (filamentous, no taste buds, most) 2 fungiform (mushroom-shaped, on dorsum, can have taste buds) 3 circumvallate (surrounded by circular trench/fossa, raised outer wall (vallum), 8-10, taste buds, sulcus terminalis) 4 folliate (few in humans, taste buds, dorsolateral)
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brunner/duodenal glands, location, secretion
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branched tubular glands in submucosa of first 1/3 of duodenum, secrete alkaline mucoid substance
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cells of small intestine
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1 enterocytes 2 goblet c 3 paneth c 4 neuroendocrine c 5 stem c 6 intraepithelial lymphocytes
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cells of stomach
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1 mucus c (surface, neck) 2 parietal/oxyntic (HCl, intrinsic factor) 3 chief/zymogen c (pepsinogen) 4 neuroendocrine c (serotonin, ghrelin, gastrin) 5 stem cells
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ducts of salivary glands
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1 intercalated 2 striated 3 intralobar 4 interlobar 5 main
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foveolae gastrica/gastric pit
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one of the numerous small pits in the mucous membrane of the stomach that are the mouths of the gastric glands
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glands of stomach
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1 gl cardiacae (mucous, long gland) 2 gl gastricae propriae (branched tubular, parietal c, zymogen c, mucous c) 3 gl pyloricae (mucus, long pits)
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hepatocytes - structure
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1 junctions = zonula occludens, gap junction 2 microvilli 3 eosinophilic 4 20-30 um 5 can have 2 nuclei 6 much mitochondria, SER (detoxification, conjugation), peroxisomes (excess FA oxidation, catalase, uric acid formation), GA and RER (secreted protein) 7 lipid droplets
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lack of intrinsic factor cause
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pernicious anemia (macrocytic)
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liver ducts, small to big
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1 intercalated 2 striated 3 intralobar 4 interlobar 5 main
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location of goblet cells
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1 trachea 2 bronchus 3 larger bronchioles 4 small intestine 5 colon 6 conjunctiva in upper eye lid
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mechanism of HCl secretion of parietal cells
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CA give H+, H+ and Cl- is actively transported (H+K+-ATPase provide the energy)
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parietal/oxyntic cells, structure and characteristics
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much mitochondria (=eosinophilic), SER, exist intracellular canaliculus, CA
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portal triad
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1 bile/hering duct 2 branch of portal vein (venule) 3 branch of hepatic a (arteriole)
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small intestine, structural characteristics to increase absorption
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1 plicae circulares/circular folds/valves of kerkring (submucosa) 2 intestinal villi (lamina propria) 3 intestinal glands/cryps of Lieberkuhn (tubular glands) 4 microvilli (cells)
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where can we find glands in submucosa?
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esophagus, small intestine
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amelogenesis imperfecta
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X-linked, gene for amelogenin
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appendices epiploicae/omental appendica
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serosa of colon (-rectum) for little sacs into peritoneum w adipose tissue
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cells of Islets of Langerhans and their secretions
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1 Alpha = glucagon 2 beta = insulin 3&4 delta and gamma = somatostatin/GHIH
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cement, similar to, produced by, attached to periodontal ligaments by
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woven bone, cementocytes (in lacuna), fibers of Sharpey
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enamel, composition
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96% inorganic compounds (hydroxyapatite), 1% organic (amelogenin (control mineralization), enamelin (protease, reassembly)), rod and interrod region (after eruption covered by membrane/cuticle (outer layer) of Nasmyth)
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enterocytes, structure, contain
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brush border by microvilli (actin, villin, calmodulin), glycocalyx, contain = disaccharidases, fatty acid binding protein (FABP), SER, GA (chylomicrons)
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enteroendocrine cells secrete
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1 CCK 2 secretin 3 gastrin 4 serotonin 5 somatostatin 6 VIP (vaso-active intestinal peptide) 7 glucagon-like factor 8 substance P 9 GIP(gastric inhibitory peptide/protein)
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GIT is developed from which germ layers
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1 endoderm 2 ectoderm (stomodeum, proctodeum) 3 splanchnopleura
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nasal vesicle, derived from
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nasal placodes become nasal pits, which becomes nasal vesicles
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permanent teeth, types, number
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1 central incisor 2 lateral incisor 3 canine 4 1st premolar (=1st decidual molar) 5 2nd premolar (=2nd decidual molar) 6 1st molar 7 2nd molar 8 3rd molar, 32 teeth
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placode
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local thickening of embryonic ectoderm (cells of place u constitute a primordial group from which a sense organ or ganglion develops)
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protection of small intestine
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1 Peyer's patches 2 Dome c (APC) connected w germinal center 3 M c (follicle associated epithelium, transport antigen to APC) 4 plasma cells - IgA
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structure of colon, missing parts in comparison w small intestine
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no villi, no plicae circulares, no paneth c
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teniae coli/bands of colon/teniae Valsalva
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the three bands in which the longitudinal muscle fibers of the large intestine (-rectum) are collceted
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vascular supply to foregut, midgut and hindgut
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foregut = celiac trunk, midgut = a mesenterica sup., hindgut = a mesenterica inf.
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cleft palate, types, causes, involved
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anterior and posterior (landmark = incisive foramen) (anteroposterior = both), trisomy 13, multifactorial, neural crest cell
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foramen cecum
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pit on dorsum pharyngeal part of tongue, site of origin of thyroid gland and thyroglossal duct
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motoric innervation of tongue - from
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hypoglossal n/CN XII
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muscles of tongue, from
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occipital myotomes (somites)
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oral part (anterior 2/3) of the tongue forms, which papilla? from
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median tongue bud/tuberculum impar and two distal tongue buds (fusion = median groove/sulcus/lingual septum) - all from floor of pharynx (pharyngeal arch 1), all papilla
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pharyngeal (posterior 1/3) of tongue, formed from
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copula (''bond'') (2nd arch) and hypobranchial/hypopharyngeal eminence (3+4 arches) (overgrow and cover copula in adult)
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primary palate, when, of what
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6th week, intermaxillary segment (medial nasal processes)
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secondary palate, finished when, of what
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12th week, from palatine shelves (of maxillary prominence), fuse in incisive foramen w primary palate
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sensoric innervation of the tongue, tactile? taste?
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tactile = trigeminal/V, glossopharyngeal/IX, vagus/X, taste = facial/VII, IX
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serous cell vs mucous cell - differentiation
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serous - more pyramidal, nucleus in the middle
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serous demilunes - what, where
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tubular glands formed by mucous cells capped/w on top of it w serous c, sublingual and submandibular glands
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striated and intercalated ducts - differentiation
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intercalated - nucleus at base, as serous c, smaller, striated - central nucleus, striation = basolateral labyrinth, larger
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terminal sulcus - embryologically what
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line of fusion of oral and pharyngeal tongue
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tubular glands are u which type of cell? why?
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mucous, because of its columnar shape
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Weber's gland, what, where
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mucous gland, close to tonsilla lingualis
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Azurophil granule
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A granule that stains a red/purple color with an azure dye (used in blood stains). Are membrane-bound primary lysosomes.
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Ebner glands, what, where
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serous gland, at root of tongue near troughs of circumvallate papillae
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exocrine part of pancreas - defining characteristics
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1 no striated ducts and myoepithelials 2 pancreatic septum 3 islets of langerhans
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exocrine\paracrine ducts, epithelial type
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simple cuboidal or columnar
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gallbladder, epi? folds? submucosa? glands?
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1 columnar epi w brush border (and basolateral labyrinth = concentration) 2 abundant folds 3 no submucosa 4 mucus glands in its neck
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generation of bile in the liver
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1 collect in bile canaliculi (space between hepatocytes, don't have endothelia) 2 hering's canal/bile ducts (cuboidal epithelia) 3 common bile duct (columnar epi)
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great salivary glands - microscopal differentiation
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1 parotid - only serous, least fat tissue 2 submandibular - 50/50 serous and mucous, more fat than parotid 3 sublingual - only serous, fat (all have myoepithelial cells, striated and intercalated ducts)
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hepatocytes - function and organelle
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1 proteosynthesis (RER, GA) 2 glycogenesis (SER, granules) 3 lipid metabolism (SER, RER, GA) 4 Vit A storage 5 xenobiotic metabolism (microsomal part of SER, peroxisome)
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MI: Diplotene
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paired homologous chromosomes begin to repel each other, but are connected by chiasmata (cross-over)
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pyknosis
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pykno = dense. condensation+reduction of nucleus, stage of necrosis
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simple columnar epithelium, function
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high-volume secretion
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simple cuboidal epithelium, function
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ion pumping
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simple squamous epithelium, function
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permeability
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stratified squamous epithelium, function
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protection
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transitional squamous epithelium, function
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for stretch
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Benedicts test - procedure
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1 Mix reducing sugar w Benedicts reagent which contain blue Cu(II) 2 Reducing sugar reduice Cu2+->Cu1+ 3 Cu1+ precipitate as red Cu2O
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Chemical fixation - types
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1 Aldehydes (react w amine groups on protein) 2 Alcohol 3 Acids 4 Salts of heavy metals (Mercury, Osmium (EM: Osmium tetroxide preserve lipids) 5 Mixtures: Buffered isotonic 4% formaldehyde
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Compounds w high affinity to other compounds used for affinity histochemistry
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1 Antibodies 2 Lectins 3 Phalloidin (-> filamentous actin) 4 Protein A (-> Fc of Ab (<- staphylococcus aurens)) 5 NA probes
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Cytochemistry and histochemistry
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Methods for localizing substances in tissue sections
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Embedding - types, how
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Paraffin. 1st dehydrate w alcohol 2nd infilitrate embedding w hydrophilic solvent (acetone)
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Fixation - how
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1 Physical: heat, freezing (liquid nitrogen, -170C, under surgery) 2 Chemical: immersion, perfusion
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Immunohistochemistry - usage in tumor diagnosis
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For CDs, intermediate filaments, receptors, melanoma antigens, PSA (prostate specific antigen), proliferation specific antigens
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Lectins - application
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Agglutinate rbcs for blood grouping
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PAS (Periodic acid schiff) stain - How to
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1 Mix PAS positive (1-2 glycol grouping/equivalent amino/alkylamine group) saccharide w periodic acid 2 Periodic acid oxidize saccharide to dialdehydes 3 Aldehydes condense w Schiff reagent to give insoluble magenta-colored aldehyde-fuchsin
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PAS - how to differentiate glycoproteins and glycogen
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Treat w amylase. Amylase cleave glycogen to glucose units that are washed out of the solution
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Principle of scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
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Electron beam interacts w a thin metal coating preapplied to the specimen, and reflected or emitted electrons are detected.
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Reducing sugar
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Saccharide that has an (transient) open aldehyde (->carboxyl group) or ketone group (becomes converted to aldehyde via a series of tautomeric shifts to migrate the carbonyl group to the end of the chain). Include monosaccharides, disaccharides (-sucrose). Polysaccharides is bad reducing agents (only reducing part on end)
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Role of resin in staining?
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Used as glue for the cover slip after staining.
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Substrates for peroxidase to give colored reaction
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Hydrogen peroxide and 3,3-diaminoazobenzidine
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What do we have to do prior to staining? why?
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Dewax. Most stains are water-soluble.
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ABC reaction
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Indirect immunocytochemistry where biotin is marker of Ab2. Biotin bind to (strept)avidin coupled to horseradish peroxidase. Add 3,3-diaminoazobenzidine. HRP: substrate -> brown product
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Basolateral labyrinth, parts - function, in which cells
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Basolateral invaginations to increase surface area, mitochondria to fuel Na+/K+-ATPase, Zonula occludens to prevent backflow. Types: 1 PCT 2 Striated ducts of salivary gland 3 Absorptive cells of intestine 4 Epithelia of gallbladder
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Brush border - structure, function, where
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Microvilli-covered apical surface. ↑surface area ->↑absorption. Found in: 1 Enterocytes (w disaccharidase and FABP (FA-binding protein) 2 PCT cells
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Catalytic histochemistry - principle
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1 Solution of enzyme and substrate, substrate->product 2 Add marker compound which react w the substrate 3 final insoluble and visual product precipitate over enzyme site
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Cilia - length and width?
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to 10 um long and 0.2 in diameter
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Cilia - on which cells?
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1 Respiratory tract 2 Fallopian tube
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Cilia and flagella, which motor protein?
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Kinesin
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Different types of mitochondria
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1 Mitochondria w shelf-like cristae, in all cells except 2 Steroid-secreting cells - tubular cristae
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Direct immunocytochemistry
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Detect Ag by tagged Ab
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Function of SER in steroid-secreting cells
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Enzymes to 1 Synthesize cholesterol 2 Transform pregenolone (from mitochondria) to androgens, estrogens and progestogens
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Inclusions - what? which?
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Substances that may or may not be present in a cell, depending on the cell type. Types: 1 Stored nutrients (liver & muscle: glycogen, adipocytes: fat) 2 Secretory products 3 Indigestible compounds in long-living cells - neurons, cardiomyocytes (lipofuscin (neurodegenerative diseases - Alzheimers?), age pigment)
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Indirect immunocytochemistry - advantage
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1 More sensitive due to signal amplification of Ab2 2 Cheaper (don't have to ''tailor'' every uncommon Ab)
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Indirect method of immunocytochemistry
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Detect Ag by 2 Abs. Ab1 bind to antigen. Ab2 is tagged and binds to Ab1.
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Markers for affinity histochemistry
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1 Fluorochrome (any fluorescent dye used to stain or label) (ie FITC (fluorescent isothiocyanate)) 2 Biotin 3 Enzymes (catalytic histochemistry) 4 Colloidal gold particles 5 Isotops
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Role of mitochondria in steroid-secreting cells, unusual characteristic
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Have enzymes to cleave cholesterol side chain and produce pregnenolone = CYP11A1/20,22-Desmolase/Cholesterol desmolase (side-chain cleaving enzyme). Tubular-like cristae (only in steroid-producing)
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brunner glands, synonym, where
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duodenal glands, submucosa of first third of duodenum (small branched coiled tubular, alkaline secretion)
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cardiac glands, location, secretion
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lamina propria of abd part of esophagus and cardia of stomach, neutral mucus secretion (branched tubules)
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Crypts of Lieberkuhn, synonym, where
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Intestinal glands, tubular glands in lamina propria of small and large intestine
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ductus deferens/vas deferens, structure
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pseudostratified columnar epithelium, 3 layer of smooth muscle (L-C-L)
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ebner gland
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serous gland of tongue, open into bottom of trough of circumvallate papilla
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Endochondral ossification - principle
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Ossification on preformed Hyaline cartilage
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Endochondral ossification - zones (from cartilage to bone)
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1 Zone of resting/ cartilage 2 Zone of proliferating cartilage 3 Zone of hypertrophic/maturing cartilage (secrete alkaline phosphatase) 4 Zone of calcified cartilage (chondrocytes are dead or dying, leave cavities that osteocytes will take over) 5 Diaphysis (shaft of bone) (epiphyseal plate = (cartilage) growth plate)
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eosin - acidic or basic?
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acidic (stains basic structures, which are eosinophilic/acidophilic)
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epididymis, epithelium
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pseudostratified columnar w stereocilia (thin layer of smooth muscle surrounding it)
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epithelium of uterine tube
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ciliated and unciliated columnar cells
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GAGs of cartilage
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1 Hyaluronan 2 Chondroitin sulfate (-> hydrated gelatinous matrix)
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gastric glands, where, secretion
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mucosa of fundus and body of stomach, parietal+zymogen/chief+mucous (branched tubular)
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glandular epithelium of prostate
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pseudostratified columnar
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Glycoproteins of bone
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1 Bone sialoprotein (BSP) 2 Osteocalcin (from osteoblast, hormone, pro-ostoblastic (increased insulin from beta cells, increased adiponectin from adipocytes (increase insulin sensitivity))
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Growth of cartilage
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Appositional (''from outside'') from chondrogenic cell populations in inner perichondrium. Embryonic/early development - interstitial
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Hydroxyapatite - formula
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Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2
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Intramembranous ossification, what, where
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formed WI dense CT proper. Mesenchymal cell -> Osteochondral progenitor cell -> Osteoblast: produce bone matrix, -> osteocyte. Create trabeculae/spongy bone. "Spongy cells" -> red bone marrow, peripheral -> periosteum -> compact bone
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Location of chondrocytes
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In lacuna of cartilage - in small groups = isogenous groups. (WI group = intraterritorial matrix, between = interterritorial matrix)
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Multinucleated cells
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Osteoclast, Hepatocyte, Syncytiotrophoblast, Skeletal muscle
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Perichondrium - where does it cover, structure
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Double CT-layer. Cover except at articulations. Outer: dense CT, blood vessels and nerve, nutritional. Inner: less dense, chondrogenic chondroblast cell population
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primary follicle
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2 or more layers of surrounding follicular cells
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primordial follicle
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1 layer of surrounding cells
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Proteins of Z-disk
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1 Desmin, Plectin -> plasmalemma 2 α-actinin -> anchor actin
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pyloric glands, where, secretion
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pylorus, mucus, (coiled, tubular)
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rete testis, epithelium
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simple cuboidal epithelium (no smooth muscle)
|
|
|
Ruffled border
|
Where a osteoclast border bone and resorption take place (by pumping H+ and creating acid and phosphatase)
|
|
|
secondary follicle
|
contain fluid filled space
|
|
|
Stereocilia - structure, where
|
Actin-base (''macro microvilli''), immotile. Found in: epididymis and ductus deferens, inner ear
|
|
|
structure of the different gastric glands
|
pyloric and cardiac glands have short gland, pyloric glands have longer pits, gastric glands proper have short pit and long gland (1 isthmus 2 neck 3 base)
|
|
|
Types of bone
|
1 Primary/Woven (non-mature, irregular, 1st osteogenesis, alveolar+skull suture+tuberosities, less mineralized & more cells) 2 Secondary/Lamellar bone (trabecular/cancellous/spongy and compact/cortical)
|
|
|
weber glands
|
muciparous/mucus-secreting gland on posterolateral borders of tongue
|
|
|
weigert van gieson (WvG), staining properties of 1 collagen 2 nucleus and ribosome (basophilic) 3 muscle and cytoplasm (eosinophilic)
|
1 red (by saturn red) 2 brown (by w hematoxylin) 3 yellow (by trinitriophenol)
|
|
|
where can we find urothelium?
|
calyces to urinary bladder
|
|
|
Wolkmann canal
|
Goes perpendicular to the length of the bone from periosteum to central/Haversian canal
|
|
|
a band
|
entire length of myosin
|
|
|
acinous gland (L. grape), ie
|
secretory unit (s) has a grapelike shape and a very small lumen, exocrine part of pancreas
|
|
|
adhering junctions
|
zonula adherens, desmosome, hemidesmosome, focal adhesion
|
|
|
advantage of masson trichrome stain
|
+ differentiating collagen from smooth muscle
|
|
|
adventitia
|
equivalent to serosa (- secretory portion) in the rest of the body
|
|
|
affinity histochemistry
|
immunohistochemistry, lectin histochemistry (mono, di, tri saccharide), in situ hybridization
|
|
|
alveolar gland, ie
|
secretory unit has a saclike form and an obvious lumen, active mammary gland
|
|
|
anterograde transport in neuron, motor protein
|
kinesin
|
|
|
apocrine, what+where
|
granules are part of apical cytoplasm, mammary gland
|
|
|
astrocyte, fibrous
|
pri white matter, long processes
|
|
|
astrocyte, function
|
blood-brain barrier, structural support, glial scar
|
|
|
astrocyte, morphology
|
largest, vascular feet (blood-brain barrier), 2 - protoplasmic+fibrous
|
|
|
astrocyte, morphology
|
protoplasmic, fibrous (pri in white matter)
|
|
|
astrocyte, protoplasmic
|
pri gray matter, envelop surface of neuron+vessel, few fibril
|
|
|
autoradiography
|
radioactive organic building blocks, silver bromide as detectors (change to granules)
|
|
|
axonema
|
array of microtubules in cilia+flagella. 9(pair)+2 (simple) pattern
|
|
|
axoneme
|
cytoskeletal structure of inner core of cilia\flagella
|
|
|
azan, collagen
|
blue (aniline blue)
|
|
|
AZAN, dyes
|
azocarmine, aniline blue, orange G
|
|
|
azan, muscle\cytoplasm
|
orange (orange G)
|
|
|
azan, nucleus+ribosome
|
red (azocarmine)
|
|
|
azan, other
|
mucus = blue (aniline blue), RBC = red
|
|
|
basal body
|
base of each cilium\flagella
|
|
|
basal lamina in glomeruli+alveoli
|
two basal lamina abut each other
|
|
|
basal lamina is produced by
|
cell which it lies under (epithelia, myocyte, adip...)
|
|
|
basal lamina, layers
|
lamina lucida\lamina rara interna, lamina densa, lamina lucida\lamina rara externa
|
|
|
basement membrane
|
basal lamina + lamina reticularis
|
|
|
basophilic granulocyte, differentiation
|
nucleus (lobed), so dark granules that they obscure the lines of the nucleus
|
|
|
blood vessels flow through, and only through...
|
connective tissue
|
|
|
carbohydrate reaction
|
PAS
|
|
|
cardiac muscle, characteristics
|
1 striated 2 uninucleated 3 nuclei are centrally located 4 branching cells, intercalated discs
|
|
|
cardiac muscle, morphology
|
striated, non-parallel
|
|
|
centriole
|
nine set of triplets of microtubules
|
|
|
centrosome
|
pair of centrioles at right angles, organizing center for microtubules of mitotic spindle
|
|
|
chemotactic mediators of mast cells
|
prostaglandins, leukotrienes (mediate inflammation)
|
|
|
chondronectin
|
mediate chondrocyte-collagen II
|
|
|
chromatin bridge
|
inactive X chromosome\Barr body
|
|
|
cis-face of GA
|
next to RER, convex
|
|
|
cisterna
|
flattened, disk-shaped membrane-bound compartment, found in GA and RER
|
|
|
clathrin (L. lattice)
|
intracellular coating, invaginate and pinch of the receptor part in endocytosis
|
|
|
close junctions
|
gap junction + tight junction
|
|
|
CNS develop from
|
neural tube
|
|
|
collagen I
|
thick fibers, bone+tendon+dentin+skin
|
|
|
collagen II
|
second thickest, hyaline+elastic cartilage
|
|
|
collagen III
|
form network, lamina reticularis(BM)+reticular fiber, around smooth muscle+endoneurium
|
|
|
collagen IV
|
basal lamina
|
|
|
collagen V
|
chorion, amnion
|
|
|
components of nucleolus
|
nucleolar organizer DNA, nucleolonema = pars fibrosa + pars granulosa
|
|
|
compound glands
|
= many. tubular\acinar\alveolar\tubulo-acinar. can be branched
|
|
|
connective tissue, classification
|
CT proper, special CT, supporting CT
|
|
|
constitutive secretion
|
fuse immediately w plasma membrane and discharge their content to the exterior
|
|
|
content of ribosome
|
4 rRNA+a 80 different proteins
|
|
|
cresyl blue
|
stain basophilic structures blue, used in neurohistology for nissl bodies (proteosynthesis apparatus)
|
|
|
cresyl violet, use
|
stain basophilic structures violet, used in neurohistology - Nissl bodies
|
|
|
crista
|
invagination of internal membrane of mitochondria
|
|
|
CT proper
|
loose, dense
|
|
|
dense collagen connective tissue
|
↑fiber, ↓cell, regular = tendon, fascia, irregular = dermis
|
|
|
desmosome\macula adherens, location+protein
|
pri epithelia, cadherin+intermediate filament
|
|
|
difference between ampulla and isthmus
|
a. Isthmus = ↑ muscle, ↑secretory cells, ↓ ciliated cells, ↓ mucosal fold
|
|
|
difference between oligodendrocyte and schwann cell
|
schwann cell only isolate one neuron
|
|
|
DNA reaction
|
Feulgen reaction
|
|
|
elastic connective tissue, location
|
yellow ligament (occipital region), suspensory ligament of penis, vessels
|
|
|
elastic fibers formation is facilitated by
|
microfibrils, mainly fibrillin (glycoprotein)
|
|
|
elastin
|
cross-linked (by isodesmosine+desmosine) tropoelastin = elastin
|
|
|
EM, negative staining
|
object is surrounded by electron dense substance
|
|
|
EM, resolution power
|
TEM = 0,1 nm, SEM = 10-15 nm
|
|
|
endocrine
|
no ducts (excretion to capillaries), cords (parathyroid gland, islets of langerhans), follicles (thyroid)
|
|
|
enzymes of lysosomes
|
acid phosphatase, ribonuclease, deoxyribonuclease, protease, sulfatase, lipase
|
|
|
eosin stains
|
basic structures (acidophilic\eosinophilic), predominantly proteins = 1 cytoplasma 2 mitochondria 3 SER 4 collagen
|
|
|
eosinophil
|
specific granules (internum\crystalline core = major basic protein, matrix\externum = lighter)
|
|
|
eosinophil, differentiation
|
bilobed, granules are a little bit redder and much larger than neutrophilic g
|
|
|
ependymal cell
|
epithelial-ish, secrete CSF, line cavities, motile cilia
|
|
|
epithelia can synthesize
|
protein (serous), glycoprotein (mucus), steroids
|
|
|
epithelial classification according to spatial arrangement
|
flat, trabecular, reticular
|
|
|
ER, signalling, protein
|
mRNA signal sequence on 5'-end, signal-recognition particle (SRP), removed by signal peptidase in RER, receptor
|
|
|
erythropoiesis, cell lineage 1-3
|
1 proerythroblast 2 basophilic erythroblast 3 polychromatic erythroblast
|
|
|
erythropoiesis, cell lineage 4-6
|
4 orthochromatic erythroblast 5 reticulocyte 6 erythrocyte
|
|
|
euchromatin
|
less coiled, active, EM = dispersed granular material, LM = light stained basophilic areas
|
|
|
exocrine+paracrine, characteristics
|
excretion to lumen of organs, have ducts, secret is produced in secretory region and transported via duct to surface
|
|
|
exocrine+paracrine, classification
|
simple gland, compound gland
|
|
|
fibrocartilage, content
|
collagen I (unique), collagen II, proteoglycans
|
|
|
fibrocartilage, where
|
TMJ, meniscus, annulus fibrosus, pubic symphysis
|
|
|
fibronectin
|
ECM glycoprotein, bind integrins and ECM components
|
|
|
FISH
|
fluorescent in situ hybridization
|
|
|
flat epithelium, classification
|
simple+stratified+pseudostratified, squamous+cuboidal+columnar
|
|
|
fluorochrome
|
any fluorescent dye used to label or stain
|
|
|
focal adhesion
|
cell (actin) to ECM, actin is connected via integrin (+vinculin, alpha-actinin)
|
|
|
function of cadherin
|
mediate cell-cell junction (adherens junction, desmosome)
|
|
|
function of integrin
|
mediate cell-ECM (focal adhesion, hemidesmosome)
|
|
|
GA, function
|
complete posttranslational modification, package of secretory product, 'place address', storage
|
|
|
ganglia
|
aggregation of PNS nuclei, CT capsule, satellite cell
|
|
|
gap junction, location
|
between certain nerve cell, smooth+cardiac muscle
|
|
|
gap junction, synoynym
|
macula communicans, nexus
|
|
|
giemsa stain
|
for tissue culture, similar as HE
|
|
|
goblet cell
|
glandular, simple columnar epithelia, secrete mucus, apocrine\merocrine
|
|
|
goblet cell, location
|
trachea, bronchus, bronchioles, small intestine, colon
|
|
|
golgi type I neuron
|
axon extend beyond dendritic tree
|
|
|
golgi type II neuron
|
(association neuron), short axon
|
|
|
granulocyte formation
|
1 myeloblast 2 promyelocyte 3 myelocyte 4 metamyelocyte 5 band cell 6 mature granulocyte
|
|
|
h zone
|
only myosin
|
|
|
hematoxylin stains
|
acidic structures (are basophilic), DNA+RNA= nucleus, nucleolus, ribosomes, RER
|
|
|
hemidesmosome, location+protein
|
epithelia+BM, intermediate filament+integrin+laminin+collagen IV
|
|
|
hemoblastosis
|
general proliferative condition of hematopoietic tissue
|
|
|
heterochromatin
|
very coiled and unactive, electron-dense, basophilic
|
|
|
HIN (heideinhain iron hematoxylin), muscle+cytoplasm
|
grey-black (HIN)
|
|
|
HIN, nucleus+ribosome
|
grey-black
|
|
|
HIN, use
|
1 muscle striation 2 mitotic structures
|
|
|
histone proteins responsible for linking nucleosomes
|
H1\H5
|
|
|
holocrine, what+where
|
secretion consist of disintegrated part of the gland, sebaceous gland
|
|
|
how to differentiate cartilage
|
elastic+hyaline is identical and can only be identified by elastic stain, fibrocartilage = dense fibrous tissue w lacunae
|
|
|
hyaline cartilage, content
|
collagen II, hyaluronic acid
|
|
|
i band
|
only actin
|
|
|
integral monotopic proteins
|
permanently attached to the membrane from one side
|
|
|
integrin
|
ECM glycoprotein receptors involved pri in cell-ECM
|
|
|
intercalated disks, morphology
|
lines running perpendicular to the length of the muscle fiber
|
|
|
intermediate filament of astrocyte
|
glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)
|
|
|
intermediate filament of cells of mesenchymal origin
|
vimentin
|
|
|
intermediate filament of epithelia
|
keratin
|
|
|
intermediate filament of neurons
|
neurofilaments
|
|
|
intermediate filament of smooth muscle
|
desmin
|
|
|
islets of langerhans
|
endocrine portion of pancreas
|
|
|
lamina densa
|
collagen IV, heparan sulfate proteoglycan
|
|
|
lamina lucida (interna+externa)
|
laminin, entactin
|
|
|
lamina propria\lamina propria mucosa
|
highly vascular CT layer below BM of mucosal epithelium
|
|
|
lamina reticularis
|
contain fibronectin, produced by underlying connective tissue
|
|
|
leukotrienes
|
eicosanoid derivative, mediate inflammation+allergy
|
|
|
loose collagen\areolar connective tissue\ location
|
lamina propria, subcutis, surround vessels+nerves+muscle
|
|
|
loose\areolar connective tissue, composition
|
↑cell, ↓fiber
|
|
|
luxolfast blue
|
makes myelin blue
|
|
|
lymphocyte, differentiation
|
nucleus (large, round, heterochromatin, nucleolus), cytoplasm (scanty, azurophilic)
|
|
|
lymphocyte, size
|
small (6-8 μm), large (up to 18 μm)
|
|
|
macrophage in epidermis, type
|
langerhans cells, dendritic cell
|
|
|
macrophage in liver
|
kupffer cell
|
|
|
magnification of light microscope?
|
1000-1500 times
|
|
|
megakaryocyte
|
35-150 μm, irregular nucleus, ↑mitochondria+GA+RER
|
|
|
merocrine
|
secretory granules (constitutive-regulated or regulated secretion))
|
|
|
merocrine, location
|
pancreas
|
|
|
mesaxon
|
plasmalemma of schwann cell that surround axon
|
|
|
mesenchymal cell, characteristics
|
star shape, scanty cytoplasm, large oval nucleus, prominent nucleoli
|
|
|
mesenchymal cell, characteristics
|
small cell body, processes (few, long, thin), nucleus (large, round, prom nucleolus, euchromatin)
|
|
|
mesenchymal cells give rise to
|
connective tissue, smooth muscle, vascular endothelium, blood cell
|
|
|
mesenchyme cells, origin
|
mesoderm+neural crest\surface ectoderm in cephalic region
|
|
|
mesothelium
|
avascular simple squamous epithelium
|
|
|
mesothelium (parietal+visceral), ie
|
peritoneum, pleura, pericardium
|
|
|
metachromasia
|
the condition in which a cell\tissue takes on a different color than the stain
|
|
|
metamyelocyte+band cell
|
gradual increased curving of nucleus
|
|
|
microglia
|
small, nuclei (=elongated, dark), short processes
|
|
|
microtubule create
|
centrosome (centriole, cell division), cilia+flagella, cytoskeleton
|
|
|
microtubule, structure
|
heterodimer by alpha and beta tubulin
|
|
|
microtubules
|
24 nm x several μm
|
|
|
mitochondria, size
|
0,5-1 μm x up to 10 μm
|
|
|
monocyte, differentiation
|
12-20 μm, nucleus (convoluted, eccentric,oval\horseshoe\kidney), azurophilic granules
|
|
|
movement of cilia+flagella
|
dynein
|
|
|
mucoid connective tissue\Warthon's jelly, composition
|
↑ ground substance, ↓fibers (collagen IV)
|
|
|
mucoid connective tissue\warthon's jelly, where
|
fetal - umbilical cord + chorion
|
|
|
mucosa\mucous membrane, structure
|
lamina propria + basement membrane + epithelium + (muscularis mucosae in GIT)
|
|
|
multipolar neuron
|
most abundant (pyramidal cells, purkinje cell)
|
|
|
nerve tissue develops from
|
neural plate (of neuroectoderm)
|
|
|
neuron, classification
|
multipolar, bipolar, pseudounipolar
|
|
|
neuron, organelles
|
dendrite = -GA, axon = -GA+nissl body (RER)
|
|
|
neutrophil
|
3,4 nuclear lobes (chromatin bridge), 12-15 micron, oxidative burst
|
|
|
nexin
|
link adjacent microtubule pairs of peripheral axonema
|
|
|
nuclear pores
|
octagonal pore complex
|
|
|
nucleolar organizer DNA
|
basesequences that code for rRNA
|
|
|
nucleolus is prominent during
|
mitotically active cells+cells that are producing much protein
|
|
|
nucleolus, function
|
produce rRNA
|
|
|
nucleosome
|
4 histone types (2 H2A, 2 H2B, 2 H3, 2 H4), 166 base pairs
|
|
|
oligodendrocyte
|
small, few process, dark nucleus
|
|
|
pale cytoplasm in HE
|
filled w water\carbohydrate\lipid
|
|
|
pappenheim stain
|
1 dry 2 may-grunwald 3 giemsa-romanovski 4 wash and dry
|
|
|
pars fibrosa
|
ribonucleoprotein fibers, pri transcript of rRNA genes
|
|
|
pars granulosa
|
granular and filamentous part of nucleolonema
|
|
|
parts of uterine tube, from ovary to uterus
|
1 fimbriae 2 infundibulum 3 ampulla 4 isthmus
|
|
|
Perls prussian blue stain
|
iron ions (and various other metal irons) green-blue (nuclei is u counterstained red)
|
|
|
peroxisome, size
|
0.5-1.2 μm
|
|
|
pink cytoplasm in HE
|
protein-rich cytoplasm
|
|
|
plasma envelope, size
|
7,5 nm
|
|
|
PNS develop from
|
neural crest (portion separating from neural tube)
|
|
|
polyribosome
|
ribosomes connected by mRNA
|
|
|
primary lysosome
|
not entered into a digestive event
|
|
|
primary lysosome, size
|
0.05-0.5 μm
|
|
|
protein of gap junction
|
connexin
|
|
|
proteins from (poly)ribosomes on ER can be
|
secreted, stored (lysosome, granules), integral proteins of plasma lemma
|
|
|
proteins on inner membrane of nuclear envelope
|
lamins A, B, C
|
|
|
pseudostratified epithelium
|
nuclei is placed differently to each other, almost always columnar
|
|
|
pseudounipolar neuron
|
sensory ganlia
|
|
|
purple cytoplasm
|
cell that is actively synthesizing protein (protein = pink, mRNA = blue)
|
|
|
radial spokes
|
link pair to central tubule in axonema
|
|
|
RBC, height
|
2,6 micron (0.8 in center)
|
|
|
regulated secretion
|
= stored until signal
|
|
|
RER function
|
1 segregate proteins for export, 2 protein glycosylation, 3 assembly of multichain protein 4 signal peptide cleavage 5 posttranslational modification of polypeptide
|
|
|
resolving power for light microscope
|
0.2μm
|
|
|
reticular connective tissue, composition
|
reticular cell, collagen III
|
|
|
reticular connective tissue, location
|
bone marrow, spleen, lymph nodes
|
|
|
reticular epithelium, what+where
|
cells are in contact only by processes (interspersed by other cells), thymus+bone marrow
|
|
|
reticulocyte
|
1%, substantia reticulofilamentosa
|
|
|
retrograde transport in neuron, motor protein
|
dynein
|
|
|
ribosome, size
|
20-30 nm
|
|
|
satellite cell\amphicyte
|
envelop nuclei in ganglia, equivalent to astrocyte
|
|
|
secondary lysosome
|
primary lysosome+phagosome\organelle
|
|
|
secondary lysosome, size
|
0,2-2 μm
|
|
|
SER, function
|
some steroid synthesis enzymes, phospholipid production, liver = neutralize, degrade, muscle = Ca2+
|
|
|
serous
|
serum or a substance having a watery consistence
|
|
|
serous membrane\serosa
|
the outermost layer of a visceral structure that lies inside abdomen\thorax
|
|
|
serous membrane\serosa, composition
|
epithelial layer (mesothelium), connective tissue layer
|
|
|
serous\albuminous cell, ie
|
a cell (esp of salivary gland) that secrete a watery\thin albuminous fluid
|
|
|
silver, staining properties
|
only stain collagen and reticular fibers (brown-black)
|
|
|
silver, use
|
1 special staining of CNS 2 reticular fiber 3 GA 4 nucleolar organizing region
|
|
|
simple glands
|
tubular, alveolar, acinar - can be simple, branched or coiled
|
|
|
size of eukaryotic cell
|
6-150 μm
|
|
|
size of granulocyte
|
12-15 μm
|
|
|
size of prokaryotic cell
|
1-5 μm
|
|
|
skeletal muscle
|
1 striations 2 nuclei (several, peripheral) 3 endomysium+epimysium
|
|
|
smooth muscle, characteristics
|
1 neat and parallel lines 2 long, narrow cells 3 nucleus (single, central, little elongated, quite large)
|
|
|
special AAs of elastin
|
isodesmosine, desmosine
|
|
|
special CT
|
reticular, elastic, adipose, hematopoietic
|
|
|
stem cell of bone marrow
|
1 hematopoietic stem cell (pluri-), 2 multipotential (lymphoid, myeloid), 3 unipotential (CF-cell), 4 precursor cell (blast)
|
|
|
submucosa
|
the layer of CT beneath mucosa\mucous membrane
|
|
|
supporting CT
|
cartilage, bone
|
|
|
synthesis of collagen
|
1 pro-alpha-chain 2 hydroxylation (proline, lysine) 3 glycosylation of hydroxylated AAs 4 self-assembly of 3 pro-alpha chain (=procollagen) 5 cleavage of propetide (ECM) = tropocollagen, 6 self-assembly into collagen fibril 7 polymerization = collagen fiber
|
|
|
synthesis of elastin
|
1 oxytalan (glycoprotein microfibrils ↑fibrillin), 2 elaunin (oxytalan w amorphous aggregates of elastin) 3 elastic fibers (elastin accumulate to occupy center of fiber bundles)
|
|
|
term for internal space of ER
|
cisternae
|
|
|
tertiary lysosome\residual bodies
|
indigestible compounds, lipofuscin and age pigment (melanin)
|
|
|
thrombocyte
|
central zone\granulomere, peripheral lighter zone\hyalomere (hyalo = vitreous)
|
|
|
tight junction, synoynm
|
zonula occludens
|
|
|
toluidin blue
|
acidic structures - basophilic stain (like hematoxylin), nuclear stain+metachromatic stain of cartilage (chondroitin sulfate), granules in mast cell (heparin)
|
|
|
trabecular epithelium, what
|
cells in cords which form web (interspersed w capillaries+nerves)
|
|
|
trabecular epithelium, where
|
liver, adrenal gland, pituitary gland
|
|
|
trans-face, GA
|
concave, off-budding
|
|
|
typical AAs of collagen
|
glycine, hydroxylysine, hydroxyproline
|
|
|
units of glycosaminoglycans
|
hexosamine, hexuronic acid
|
|
|
unspecific granules of granulocytes
|
lysosomes (azurophilic)
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VH + GrT, collagen
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green (green masson trichrome)
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VH + GrT, elastic
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V hematoxylin
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VH + GrT, use
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distinguish collagen fiber from elastic fiber
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vitamin C deficiency cause...because....
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scurvy, necessary to hydroxylate collagen
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weigert resorcin-fuchsin, use
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stain elastin fibers dark-purple (elective staining)
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weigert van gieson, collagen
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red (saturn red)
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weigert van gieson, dyes
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1 weigert haematoxylin 2 saturn red 3 trinitriophenol\picric acid
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weigert van gieson, muscle+cytoplasm
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yellow (trinitriophenol)
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weigert van gieson, nucleus+ribosome
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brown (w. hematoxylin)
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weigert van gieson, other
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all tissue are yellow except collagen
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where does polymerization take place on microtubule
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+ end,
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zonula adherens, location
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epithelial, myocytes
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zonula adherens, proteins
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connected to actin, transmembrane protein = cadherin, tranduction = catenin (+vinculin+actinin)
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zonula occludens, prominent where, which proteins
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epithelia, occludin+claudin
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zonula occludens\tight junction, function
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create polarity, prevent passage, block movement of integral membrane proteins
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The endoplasmic matrix (internal space of endoplasmic reticulum) is connected to which structure?
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The space between the two membrane surfaces of the nuclear membrane
(Guyton) |
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Lysosomes
a. Digests (3) b. Filled with ...? c. Size d. Origin |
a.
1. Damaged cellular structures 2. Ingested food particles 3. Unwanted matter, ie bacteria b. Many granules which are protein aggregates consisting of many (>40) hydrolase enzymes & bactericidal agents (lysozyme, lysoferrin, acid) c. 250-750 nm d. Bud off Golgi Apparatus (Guyton) |
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Peroxisomes - 2 ways in which they differ from lysosomes
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1. Believed to originate by self-replication or budding from smooth endoplasmic reticulum (as opposed to GA as with lysosomes)
2. Have oxidases instead of hydrolases (Oxidases can produce H2O2 from oxygen and different intracellular chemicals, catalase can use H2O2 to oxidize many substances (ie 50% of alcohol is oxidized in peroxisomes of hepatocytes) (Guyton) |
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Nuclear envelope
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The two separate bilayer membranes that separate the nucleus from the rest of the cytoplasm
(The intermembranous space is connected with ER) (Guyton) |
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Phagocytosis - mechanism up to fusion with lysosomes
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1. Particle attach to receptors
2. The edges of the membrane evaginate to surround the particle while more and more receptors attach to the particle ligands 3. Actin (and other contractile fibrils) surround the vesicle and contract, forcing it inward & pinching off the stem 4. Fuse with lysosomes (Guyton) |
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Lysosomes - bactericidal agents
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1. Lysosome (dissolves the bacterial cell membrane)
2. Lysoferrin (binds iron and other substances before they can promote bacterial growth) 3. Acid (at a pH of 5)(activate hydrolases and inactivates bacterial metabolic systems) (Guyton) |
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Synthetic function of Golgi apparatus
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Synthesize hyaluronic acid & chondroitin sulfate (-> mucus, ground substance, organic matrix in bone & cartilage)
(Guyton) |
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Protein synthesis apparatus
a. Time of formation of protein in RER b. Time until present in GA c. Time until secreted |
a. 3-5 minutes
b. 20 minutes c. 1-2 hours (As determined by using radioactive amino acids in glandular cells) (Guyton) |
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Uses of ATP for cellular function (3)
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1. Transport of substances through multiple membranes in the cell (the renal tubular cells use as much as 80% of the ATP for transport)
2. Synthesis of chemical compounds (1 peptide linkage = 4 ATP, some cells use up to 75% of ATP for synthesis, especially during the growth phase) 3. Mechanical work (muscle, cilia, ameboid motility) (95% of ATP is made in the mitochondria) (Guyton) |
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Ameboid motion
a. Mechanism b. Types of cells that exhibit ameboid locomotion (4) c. What is the most important initiator of ameboid locomotion? |
a.
1. Formation of new cell membrane at the leading edge of the pseudopodium and continual absorption of the membrane at the rear portions 2. Supported by attachment of the pseudopodium to surrounding tissue structures by receptors (more and more are exocytosed at the pseudopodium) 3. Actin-mediated contraction (at ectoplasm & by new filaments of actin contracting via myosin) b. 1. White blood cells 2. Fibroblasts 3. Germinal cells of skin (repair) 4. Embryonic cells c. Chemotaxis (positive -> toward substance, negative -> away from. Postulated that the side of the cell most exposed develop membrane changes that cause pseudopodial protrusion) (Guyton) |
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Cilia and ciliary movement
a. Found on which cells (3) b. Structure c. Mechanism |
a.
1. Surface of respiratory airways 2. Inside surface of the uterine tubes 3. Sperm (flagellum) b. 9 peripheral doublets & 2 single tubules centrally = axoneme, connected to basal body. Peripheral doublets interconnected by dynein ATPase c. Dynein ATPse initiate a fast forward-thrusting movement (up to 20\s) which is responsible for motility followed by a slow backward movement (flagellum move in quasi-sinuosidal waves) (Guyton) |
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Formation of ribosomes
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1. Genes ribosomal RNA is encoded by 5 pairs of chromosomes
2. Ribosomal RNA collects in the nucleolus (more in cells that are manufacturing much protein) 3. Ribosomal RNA in the nucleolus binds with imported ribosomal proteins to form granular primordial products 4. Exported to the cytoplasm where it assembles to for mature ribosomes (Guyton) |
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How is the ribosomes attached to the endoplasmic reticulum forming the rough endoplasmic reticulum
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The initial ends of many forming protein molecules have amino acid sequences that immediately attach to receptor sites on the ER
(Guyton) |
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How many high-energy phosphate bonds are needed to synthesize one peptide linkage?
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4
(2 for making activated AMP-AA complex (ATP -> AMP) which reacts with tRNA at hydroxyl of deoxyribose of adenylic acid. And peptidyl transferase require 2: GTP->GMP) (Guyton) |
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Promoter: group of nucleotides that has specific affinity for RNA polymerase. The RNA polymerase must bind with this prmoter before it can begin traveling along the DNA strand to synthesize RNA.
Repressor operator: group of nucleotides that can bind a "regulatory" protein called a repressor protein and prevent attachment of the RNA polymerase. Activator operator: lies ahead of promoter. when an regulatory protein called an activator protein binds to this activator operator, it helps attract the RNA polymerase to the promoter to activate the operon. Structural genes can code for enzymes together making an enzymatic pathway. Negative feedback by repressor protein or by causing a regulatory activator protein to break its bond with the activator operator. An operon is frequently controlled by a regulatory gene that codes for an regulatory protein - activator or repressor agent. (Guyton) |
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How fast is the life cycle of the fastest dividing cells (highly stimulated bone marrow cells)? How long does mitosis last?
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10 hours
30 minutes (Guyton) |
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Parkinson's disease
a. Outline the pathological mechanism b. Give the general treatment strategies form Parkinson's disease |
a.
1. Dopaminergic neurons in pars compacta of substantia nigra have inhibitory projections to striatum. 2. Striatum have excitatory cholinergic projections to other neurons that project out of the basal ganglia Pathology - loss of dopaminergic neurons -> less inhibition of cholinergic neurons b. Therapy for Parkinson's disease 1. DA replacement therapy 2. DA agonist therapy (In combination with #1, bromocriptine, pergolide, pramipexole, ropinirole.) 3. Anticholinergic therapy (Muscarinic antagonists: trihexyphenidyl, benztropine, biperiden) (Stringer) |
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Dopamine replacement therapy for Parkinson's disease - which agents are given and why (5)
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1. Levodopa\L-dopa
Metabolic precursor of dopamine, cross the BBB 2. Carbidopa Dopamine decarboxylase inhibitor, don't cross the BBB. Levodopa is turned into dopamine by decarboxylation. This thus reduce the peripheral metabolism of L-dopa. 3. Tolcapone and Entacapone COMT inhibitors -> prolong its half life 4. Selegiline\Deprenyl MAO-B inhibitor, the enzyme that metabolize dopamine in the CNS. 5. Amantadine A antiviral drug effective for influenza. It appear to enhance the synthesis, release, or reuptake of DA from the surviving nigral neurons (Stringer) |
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Partial seizures (focal) - give characteristics
a. Partial simple b. Partial complex c. Partial seizures with secondary generalizations |
a. Partial simple
1. Focal motor (also speech) or sensory disturbance 2. No impairment of consciousness b. Partial complex 1. Dreamy state with automatisms (Automatism - An epileptic attack consisting of stereotyped psychic, sensory, or motor phenomena carried out in a state of impaired consciousness and of which the individual usually has no knowledge.) 2. Impaired consciousness c. Partial seizures with secondary generalizations (-> generalized convulsive (tonic-clonic\grand mal, generalized nonconvulsive\absence\petit mal) (Stringer) |
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Generalized seizures
a. Generalized convulsive - synonyms, characteristics b. Generalized nonconvulsive - synonyms, characteristics |
a. Generalized convulsive\Tonic-clonic\Grand mal seizures
1. Loss of consciousness and falling 2. Rigid extension of limbs 3. Clonus b. Generalized nonconvulsive\Absence\Petit mal seizures Impaired consciousness with staring and eye blink. (Stringer) |
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Give the drug of choice for the following seizures
a. Generalized convulsive b. Partial - simple, complex, secondarily generalized c. Generalized nonconvulsive |
a. Generalized convulsive
1. Valproate 2. Carbamazepine b. Partial - simple, complex, secondarily generalized 1. Carbamazepine 2. Phenytoin c. Generalized nonconvulsive 1. Ethosuximide 2. Valproate (They are all metabolized by the liver and all except ethosuximide are highly protein bound) (Stringer) |
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Antiepileptic drugs
a. Which is associated with autoinduction of its own metabolism b. Which drug has zero-order kinetics c. Which drug is associated with granulocyte suppression and aplastic anemia (hypo- or aplastic bone marrow) d. Which is associated with elevated liver enzymes, nausea and vomiting, weight gain, and tremor e. Which is associated with ataxia and nystagmus at higher doses f. Which is associated with stomach aches, vomiting, and hiccups |
a. Carbamazepine
b. Phenytoin (= Metabolize a certain amount, ie 5mg per time unit, not a fraction like first-order kinetics) c. Carbamazepine d. Valproate (May produce fatal hepatic failure, more common in children < 2 years, not dose related) e. Phenytoin (also hirsutism, coarsening of facial features, and gingival hyperplasia) f. Ethosuximide (Drug of choice for absence seizures, thought to act by blocking Ca channels in the thalamus) (Thieme) |
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Respiratory - components of the intrapulmonary bronchi \ lobar\secondary and segmental\tertiary bronchi
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1. Mucosa
I. Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium II. Lamina propria 2. Musculocartilaginous layer I. Spiral muscle (Nearly complete circle) II. Bronchial cartilage - hyaline, but gradual increase distally in elastic cartilage, only plates\spots III. Mixer seromucous bronchial glands (IV. Venous plexus) 3. Adventitia (Conveys the nutritive bronchial branches to the bronchus) (Thieme) |
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Non-respiratory bronchioles
a. Components b. Last conducting part |
a.
1. Mucosa 2. Muscular layer - no cartilage 3. Adventitia (Contain a network of abundant elastic fibers) b. Terminal bronchioles (Bronchioles are 0.3-0.5 mm) (Thieme) |
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Respiratory system - gas-exchanging portion
a. List the structures involved in gas exchange b. Histology of the respiratory bronchioles c. Number of alveoli d. Total surface area for gas exchange e. Histology of the alveoli f. Describe the blood-air barrier - thickness and components |
a. Structures involved in gas-exchange
1. Respiratory bronchioles -> (Avg. diameter of 0.4 mm) 2. Alveolar ducts -> 3. Alveolar sacs -> 4. Alveoli b. Histological compoennts Cuboidal epithelium, smooth muscle, c. 300 million. d. 140 m2 e. Alveoli 1. Squamous alveolar epithelium I. Type 1 pneumocyte - 90% II. Type 2 pneumocyte - 10%, produce surfactant, stem cells 2. Interalveolar septa - CT and capillaries f. The blood-air barrier 0.3-0.7 um thick Components 1. Alveolar epithelium 2. Fused basement membranes 3. Capillary epithelium (Thieme) |
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Salivary glands
a. List the characteristics of serous secretory units b. List the characteristics of mucous secretory units c. Excretory duct system - parts and their epithelium, include if they are intralobular or interlobular structures |
a. Serous secretory units
I. Acinus (berry-shaped structure of cells) with small lumen II. Acinar cells are tall, basophilic cytoplasm, round central nucleus b. Mucous secretory units I. Tubules II. Tubular cells - tall, flattened nuclei at the base III. Myoepithelial cells (Between the mucous cells and their basement membrane) c. Excretory duct system Intralobular 1. Tubule\acinus -> 2. Intercalated duct - low epithelium 3. Secretory\striated duct - columnar epithelium with basal striations (infoldings and mitochondria for basal Na-K-ATPase) Interlobular 4. Excretory ducts - simple\pseudostratified columnar epithelium (Thieme) |
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Teeth
a. Dentin - where, formed by, Tomes fibers b. Enamel - composition, where, made of c. Cement - composition, where, Sharpey's fibers d. Periodontium |
a. Dentin
I.The bulk of the tooth II. Odontoblast III. Tomes fibers\odontoblastic processes via dental canaliculi to dentinoenamel or cementodentinal junction (No blood vessels, ground substance in denal canaliculi (organic matrix, collagen, calcium)) b. Enamel I. Acellular, its ground substance contains 97% inorganic material, no collagen II. Cover dentin III. Ameloblast (Enamel prisms is the structural units) c. Cement I. Few cells, resemble bone II. Cover the dentin of the root III. Collagen fibers that run between the cement and the bony socket - anchoring function d. Periodontium Periodontal\Sharpey's fibers, cement, gingiva, alveolar wall) (Gingiva - the dense fibrous tissue and overlying mucosa that envelop the alveolar processes. The junctional epithelium overlie the dentinoenamel junction and lines the gingival sulcus) (Thieme) |
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The stomach
a. Epithelium b. The 3 types of gastric glands - which, location, structure c. The muscular layers |
a. Simple columnar epithelium
b. The gastric glands 1. Gastric glands proper I. In body and fundus II. Long, straight III. The neck - mucous neck cells (Also replenish the surface epithelium) IV. The middle portion - chief and parietal cells (Chief cells - columnar\cuboidal, highly basophilic, pepsinogen. Parietal cells - highly acidophilic, large, triangular, HCl & intrinsic factor) V. The base - chief cells, enteroendocrine cells 2. Cardiac glands I. In the cardia II. Tubular branched III. Mainly mucous-producing cells 3. Pyloric glands I. In the pyloric part II. Coiled tubular glands III. Mainly columnar cells producing neutral mucus IV. Gastrin-producing endocrine G cells (All the gastric glands extend from the gastric pits. In this region the gastric pits are deeper) c. From internal to external 1. Oblique fibers 2. Circular fibers (Thickens to form the pyloric sphincter 3. Longitudinal fibers (#3 is well developed. Functional distinction at angular incisure - before the digestive sac after the pyloric canal with emptying functions) (Thieme) |
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The small intestine
a. Duodenum - histological characteristics |
a. Duodenum
1. Kerckring's valves\Circular folds - dense, tall (Mucosa and submucosa, increase surface area by 50%) 2. Major and minor duodenal papilla in descending\2nd part (Major for opening of pancreatic and bile duct, minor for accessory pancreatic duct) (The main pancreatic and bile duct produce the longitudinal fold of duodenum) (Minor above major) 3. Tall, leaflike intestinal villi (Villi is projections of epithelium and lamina propria, covered by absorptive epithelial cells - enterocytes which have a microvilli brush border, lamina propria core with smooth muscle for individual villus motility, blood & lymph vessel) 4. Intestinal glands\Crypts of Lieberkuhn - shallow 5. Duodenal\Brunner's glands I. In submucosa II. Branching tubulo-alveolar III. Their mucus secretion neutralize the substances in the chyme b. Jejunum 1. Kerckring's valves\Circular folds - similar as duodenal (tall, dense) in the initial part, in the last part short and far apart 2. Tall, fingerlike villi 3. Crypts of Lieberkuhn gradually deeper c. Ileum 1. Kerckring's valves\Circular folds - only present in the first part - short, spaced far apart 2. Peyer's patches in the mucosa and submucosa (Aggregated lymphoid nodules) 3. Shorter villi 4. Crypts become progressively deeper |
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Intestinal glands
a. Synonym b. Type c. Open into, extend to d. Function e. Cells |
a. Crypts of Lieberkuhn
b. Short, tubular glands c. Open at the base of the villi, extend to the muscularis mucosae. d. Secretory and regenerative. e. Cells 1. Enterocytes 2. Secretory goblet cells 3. Paneth granular cells (Apical granules with lysosomal enzymes and peptidase) 4. Enteroendocrine cells (Thieme) |
