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83 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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The “Early Modern Period”
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5 major overlapping forces: secularism, religious division, european expansion, new market economies, & continued rise of centralized states. secularism (scientific revolution solidifies secular thinking in European culture), deep and lasting religious split in Christianity which is product of Reformation (heretical movement that actually succeeds. This rift shapes all aspects of culture/intellectual/etc life. Shapes mentalities). European Expansion: The Discovery of the “New World”
begins around end of 15th century. Colonialism & imperialism. Europeans encounter “others” from around the world. They think they are superior to the others which justified expansion. New Market Economies: Toward Capitalism exploitation of new colonies & a new market economy leads to capitalism. The Continued Rise of Centralized States: Absolutism and Constitutionalism we see this trend emerging starting in 11th centuries but it continues & accelerates. Centralized states get more powerful at the expense of other sources of power. kings & advisors take advantage of these other points above. Absolutism & Constitutionalism are two kinds of centralized states. Constitutionalism is more modern of the two, but absolutism can still be seen as a modern phenomenon even tho it doesn’t survive. |
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Johannes Gutenberg
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1445. Johannes Gutenberg invents the printing press. It uses moveable reusable type. It is hugely important. the result is an enormous increase in the production of books. Now mistakes were less likely since copies weren’t made by hand. This proliferation of books allows the northern REN writers to reach many more people than they had during Italian REN. What you see emerging in Europe is a new print & literary culture that is much more accessible and widespread.
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Desiderius Erasmus
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(1466-1536): In Praise of Folly (1509). You could think of him as the First European. He is cosmopolitan & not bound to a certain context. He is a superstar & remains a symbol of Europe. He was interested in classical texts like Petrarch was. He was always looking for the original texts & not translations/copies. He translates a bible from original Greek (or so he thought). Erasmus is much more interested in bringing humanists values/methods in tune with Christianity. First off, he argues that religion was not opposed to scientific understanding. He incorporates idea that humans are not inherently sinful. They might have the potential for good. He thinks people have free will & they don’t always need the help of the church to get close to god. According to him, true religious understanding comes from reading the bible. He wants to popularize reading of the bible. Erasmus doesn’t go as far as martin Luther. He thinks church still has a key role to play but should still be individual learners too.
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Northern/Christian humanism
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Northern REN is inspired by Italian REN but also represents something new. Why northern Europe? It had been a cultural backwater in 14-15th centuries but it becomes center of western culture in 16th. There are structural reasons for this. Trade is revived. There are a number of strong centralized states. So these structural conditions (economic revival). The italians provide the basics for the northern REN. Even before French & German invasions of italy, REN culture was being spread thru trade and commerce. We see a spread of humanist education. northern thinkers begin to travel to Italy to learn. So slowly we see emerging a kind of European community of thinkers & artists. The REN becomes internationalized. REN also changes due to this expansion. What makes the Northern REN different is its attempt to bring Christianity in tune with humanist thinking and values!!
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Praise of Folly
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1509. Desiderius Erasmus. Through satyr, he wants to expose the corruption of the church, state, establishment etc. the best example is his book In Praise of Folly. He pokes fun at clergy, monks, etc. he main character is Folly who was always intervening in human affairs to make people look foolish & undermine them. She is not unlike fortune. She depicts people as foolish/corrupt/wicked/absurd. The goal is not to offer concrete proposals for reform, instead he wants to expose the need for reform in an accessible way for more people to make sense of. This is something average people could read or understand. He reaches a wider audience (can be performed as a play for illiterate).
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St. Thomas More
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(1478-1535): Utopia (1516). Thomas More becomes a saint after being executed by Henry 8th. He is most important English representative of REN. He was a legal scholar who served as a judge in Henry’s England then as Lord Chancellor. He had enormous amount of power. his experiences gave him first hand knowledge of hypocrisy that prevailed in England.
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Utopia
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St. Thomas More. His most famous book where he critiques England, Utopia was written in 1516. Utopian thinkers supposedly deny human nature: greed, wickedness, competitive, lustful. But More’s Utopia is a book about an imaginary world. He defines a world where no private property exists. It is characterized by social justice & harmony. Christianity is beginning to spread but there are many other faiths which are tolerated. Religious toleration is a new idea. Throughout book, he pokes fun at England. It also articulates a critique of private property, which really is in the ascendance. More suggested that any society based on ownership of private property was going to be plagued by social inequalities. It will always be based on hierarchies. This book is most important because it stands as one of first examples of social criticism.
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Diet of Worms
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Charles V. 1522. Then once he is emperor, Charles summons Luther to a meeting of all the princes. It’s called “Diet of Worms”. Luther actually goes & he is brought before a committee of church leaders & theologians. They asked him if he will recant his errors & Luther says no. they then excommunicated him.
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Charles V
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. In 1519, Charles V who is also king of spain wanted to become HRE. In order to be HRE, he has to be elected & there are 7 elector princes who determine this. Charles bribed them but they were worried that Charles would try to centralize his power in Germany & crush their independence that they had carved out in the HR Empire. So Charles has to step lightly. Charles has to be careful not to alienate the princes who are voting for him. He is elected in 1519.
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Frederick of Saxony (Elector)
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Frederick of Saxony (Luther’s prince) sends his agent & holes up Luther in a castle in Saxony to keep him safe. Frederick was one of the most devout in Europe, but he keeps Luther safe. Why would a devout catholic who disagrees with him keep him safe? It’s up to Frederick to deal with his own subjects. It was a question of Frederick’s sovereignty in the holy roman empire.
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Martin Luther
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He rejects that good works can get you to heaven at all. October 31, 1517 he posts “95 Theses” on Wittenberg cathedral. Luther didn’t put the theses on the door to launch a rebellion on the church. They were written in latin so only scholastics could read them. What Luther wanted to do was begin a theological debate that would lead to a correction of the errors of the church. These things cannot be based on scripture but are a product of cannon law. It’s doctrine that is made on basis of laws & precedence church has established. Luther rejects sale of indulgences in his 95 theses. He also articulates his concept through salvation thru faith alone. He also challenges the monopoly of the church on the interpretation of scripture (this is what really gets him in trouble). Charles V was trying to centralize his power so the german princes were realizing that the movement could also be used against Charles. Luther knows this & takes advantage of it. He writes to elite to tell them that they don’t have to listen to Rome any more. Rome is now a house of cards. Secular rulers began to listen to Luther. They also began appropriating church property & creating state churches they could use as tools for their rule. Luther begins to get backing & it allows him to spread his message. He translates the Greek version of the bible while holed up in the castle. He makes it accessible to the masses. he talks of a priesthood of all believers. He says everyone in the end is their own priest. Look at recitation readings.
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John Calvin
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(1509-1564): Law, Humanism, and Religion
Calvinism becomes an international movement & spreads far. It upsets a delicate religious balance in Germany. Like Luther, Calvin came from a prosperous family. He studied law, which influenced his theological writings. He is trained in the northern humanist condition. In 1534, Calvin has to flee France because King Francis was trying to stamp out reformist movements. The King wanted to free himself from catholic church but he wanted to maintain one church under his control, so he was cracking down on reformers. He flees France to Switzerland where he publishes his book The Institutes of the Christian Religion. It has the markings of a lawyer. He is trying to build a case for religion that can go up against the scholastics. He was a systematic theologian. At the heart of his theology is the question of who actually receives salvation. The Concept of Predestination God had already determined who would be saved and who wouldn’t, but Luther doesn’t spend much time on this like Calvin does. The distance that separates man from God is immeasurable. Man can never become close to god’s will because he is so inferior. That meant there was nothing an individual could do. If you lived a morally upstanding life & successful in this world, that would prove to yourself & others that you were a part of the saved ones. It was comfort for the mind. |
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Geneva Theocracy
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Religious Theocracy in Geneva
Don’t drink, don’t dance, cover flesh. They reject worldly pleasures. People in Geneva had to live by a strict religious code. People would be killed for offending god’s law. |
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Max Weber and the “Protestant Work Ethic”
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The “Protestant Work Ethic” (Max Weber) and the New Morality
Weber came up with Protestant Work Ethic. He says you can prove this through your actions and being a good religious person. Calvinism & the concept of working hard to prove you are part of the elect works well with capitalism. |
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Huguenots
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???
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German Peasants War
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(1525)
war defeated by a german prince who was an ally of Luther. This moment shows that these reformist religious ideas could have social consequences. People could use them to justify their actions in rebellion. |
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Anabaptists
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the most radical though were the Anabaptists. They take the concept of the priesthood of all believers to the extreme. They believed all people should be re-baptized. You had to accept Christ consciously. They wanted to achieve total equality among members of the religious community. Wanted to banish concept of private property because they didn’t want a social hierarchy. They were not conservative like the Calvinists. They accepted polygamy. In 1534 they managed to take control of a German town of Munster. They cease all private property and try to make a utopia based on god’s laws. Nobody else had use for their laws. German prince again slaughters the Anabaptists like the peasants. Shows that besides the support of secular elites, few groups could get off the ground. The legacy is that these social ideas that come with reformist religious movements would resurface periodically. You see them in English revolution of 17th century too.
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Henry VIII
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• Henry VIII’s Big Problem:
o Catherine of Aragon, Anne Boleyn, Charles V and the Pope o Help from Parliament o Head of the Church of England (1533) o The Anglican Church. Henry opposes the reformation. At first, he is even an ally with the pope against it. the reformation is a political decision to achieve goals. He got what he wanted because he respected tradition of the magna carta. His biggest political problem though was getting a male heir. He is married to the widow of his deceased brother. Catherine & Henry can’t produce a male heir. They have Mary. Henry believes it’s because he married his brother’s widow. So henry felt he needed a new wife and he knew that he wanted one of Catherine’s ladies in waiting – Anne Boleyn. She was of noble birth. Anne was a huge flirt. Henry really wanted her too. Anne wouldn’t let henry have her until he broke off his marriage with Catherine and married her. Here is henry’s problem. He needs an annulment from Catherine. He wrote to the pope explaining this. Under normal circumstances, the pope might actually do this for a king. 1527 letter is sent but pope refuses because he is under extreme pressure from Charles 5th. Charles is the real defended of the catholic faith. He has the pope under house arrest sort of. So pope is under enormous pressure. Charles also happens to be Catherine’s nephew and is trying to help her because she wants to stay married. Henry decides to circumvent the pope all together. He appeals to the English nobility directly. Through a series of laws & decrees (all of which are approved by parliament) he marries Anne Boleyn. May 1533 he declares annulment and in 1535 is proclaimed protector & superior leader. He basically replaces the pope. They do have a child who is a girl & then he has Anne executed. He creates excuses to kill her. His third wife was Jane Seamore. Members of parliament were happy to accommodate Henry, especially the elites. They were his political bases. Henry gave them land for their support. The result is that the Church of England is formed. It breaks institutionally from rome but not doctrinally. |
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Catherine of Aragon
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Catherine & Henry can’t produce a male heir. They have Mary. Henry believes it’s because he married his brother’s widow. So henry felt he needed a new wife
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Anglican Church
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Look at Henry VIII
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“Bloody” Mary
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(1553-58). Henry’s first daughter, Mary (from Catherine’s marriage) becomes queen & she tries to turn the clock back. She doesn’t try to reestablish things with rome but tries to make England catholic. Many people are killed by her due to this thus the nickname.
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Elizabeth I and the Elizabethan Settlement
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(1558-1603)
The Elizabethan Settlement (1559). Her sister Elizabeth takes the thrown. Elizabeth is who begins to bring reform theology into the church. She was a staunch protestant. In 1559, she introduces a major religious settlement to prevent England from being torn apart. This is known as Elizabethan Settlement. She reaffirms the act of supremacy and passes the Act of Uniformity. Everyone has to attend church based on common book of prayer. But she also tolerates other religions. So what emerges was an Anglican church that maintained hierarchical structure but increasingly incorporated protestant & Calvinist theology.
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The Anglican Prayer Book
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???
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Religious Peace of Augsburg (1555)
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The catholic princes then begin to join protestant princes. This forces Charles to fight yet another war in 1551. He doesn’t win this war. By this point, Charles V is exhausted. He has been at this for more than 30 years. He finally agrees to a negotiated settlement. For first half of the 1550s, they begin creating a compromise. It’s really a victory for Protestants though. The settlement is called Peace of Augsburg & signed in 1555. According to this settlement, each prince in Germany has the right to determine the religion of his own land. This is the core of the religious settlement. It is an enormous victory for all the princes. This settlement is yet another reason why Germany does not go on trajectory of becoming a unified nation state like France & England. It remains a collection of various states since they had control of the church in their territory. In 1555 he abdicates his thrown because he’s so tired. He retreats to a monastery. Charles’ son Phillip II becomes King of Spain.
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Phillip II
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son of Charles V. King of Spain. Defender of the Catholic Faith. Phillip doesn’t become HRE, but does become King of Spain. He takes up the Catholic cause but he’s not interested in Germany any longer. Germany is lost. Instead, he is more concerned with Calvinists in the Netherlands. He might have been able to tolerate them if they practiced religious & remained loyal subjects, but they didn’t. Calvinists also want independence from Spain so in 1566 they begin a revolt that lasts until 1609. This is Phillip II primary concern. He is the most powerful King in Europe at the time. Spain is the European superpower. You would think he could easily stamp this problem out. He has the best military at the time. The problem was the Dutch calvinists were getting a lot of support from Elizabeth’s England. Spain decides to invade England due to this & because he wanted to marry Elizabeth & she said no. He sends the Spanish armada to invade. However, they lost. It is seen as the beginning of the end of Spain’s title as superpower. They fight on, but ultimately lose the fight. Most destroyed in a storm though.
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Ignatius Loyola and Spiritual Meditations
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(1491-1556). There’s also a grassroots movement from below. The most significant is the new religious order known as the Society of Jesuits founded by Ignatius Loyola. As a result of a near death experience, Loyola decides to dedicate life to Christ. To show others how to do this as well, he writes Spiritual Medications which is a guard book for fellow Jesuits on how to pray & meditate & in the process get a closer relationship with god & the church. They are recognized as a religious order by the pope.
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The Society of Jesus (Jesuits)
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What distinguished the Jesuits from former religious orders is that they are extremely well organized, disciplined, & militant. They are the shock troops of the Catholic reformation. They are intensely loyal to the pope & serve as his chief instrument to regain lost people from Protestantism. They become chief missionaries in the new world. They were well educated & respectable. They introduce new tradition of education. they become some of the foremost educators in Europe & draw on humanism to develop curriculum. They were much more serious than the monks that had become symbols of the decline/corruption of the church. In protestant areas of Europe though, Jesuits are seen as the boogiemen of the Catholic Church. It becomes a pejorative term. They also hit Protestantism at one of its weakest point: predestination. They argue that people may be predestined, but you can still do things to increase chances of getting into heaven. You could earn your salvation which Calvinism declines. For some people, that was a more reassuring message.
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Council of Trent
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(1545-1563)
Pope Paul III wanted to make changes from top down. He has an enormous gathering to a great council at Trent. Council of Trent lasts 18 years (month pauses). It establishes the foundation of Catholic doctrine all the way until the 1960s. At this council, members of the church hierarchy spend a lot of time condemning protestants & Luther. The primary function is this. They reaffirm the basic pillars of catholic doctrine. For example: the 7 sacraments, papal infallibility, etc. Dismissed concept of a priesthood of all believers. Still need the clergy to make sense of God’s word. They argue against concept that faith alone can bring you salvation. Faith can only bring you salvation if supplemented by good works. It says that church is a necessary institution to get Christians into heaven. At the same time though, these bishops/cardinals also promoted new policies that aimed at reforming church’s past abuses: selling of church offices, members of clergy were to get better learning on scripture. There’s an effort to encourage more educated & committed clergy. They also were discouraged from living materialistic lives. Church tries to encourage a new religious piety among everyone (even lower people). The practice of granting indulgences is reaffirmed actually, but they are no longer to be given in return for a monetary donation. Most importantly, at council the catholic church regroups & recovers. Shows it’s still a strong institution, coherent, unified, ready to face the Protestant challenge. At the same time though, with the passage of the Council of Trent’s reforms, any chance at a reconciliation between Lutheranism & Protestantism & Catholics is ended. |
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Spanish Netherlands
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The Calvinist Revolt in the Spanish Netherlands, 1566-1609
Phillip doesn’t become HRE, but does become King of Spain. He takes up the Catholic cause but he’s not interested in Germany any longer. Germany is lost. Instead, he is more concerned with Calvinists in the Netherlands. He might have been able to tolerate them if they practiced religious & remained loyal subjects, but they didn’t. Calvinists also want independence from Spain so in 1566 they begin a revolt that lasts until 1609. This is Phillip II primary concern. He is the most powerful King in Europe at the time. Spain is the European superpower. You would think he could easily stamp this problem out. He has the best military at the time. |
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Spanish Armada
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The problem was the Dutch calvinists were getting a lot of support from Elizabeth’s England. Spain decides to invade England due to this & because he wanted to marry Elizabeth & she said no. The Spanish Armada (1588) and the Decline of Spanish Power
He sends the Spanish armada to invade. However, they lost. It is seen as the beginning of the end of Spain’s title as superpower. They fight on, but ultimately lose the fight. Most destroyed in a storm though. |
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The Dutch Republic
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(1609): Europe’s Most Prosperous State
Dutch get independence after decades of fighting the Spanish. |
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King Francis I of France
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(1515-1547) and Royal Centralization
France led by one of the strongest kings of the time. He is very powerful internally. He centralizes royal absolutism. He is a catholic but more concerned about maintaining religious unity. He doesn’t want to face same problems as Germany. His power was growing over the Catholic church in France. |
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House of Guise and House of Bourbon
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Both families have enormous power. If Bourbon’s won, Calvinists would have religious freedom but also the dominant political force in France. Which nobles will have more power in France – Catholics or Calvinists. The Bourbons actually had a plot to capture Francis. They were caught though and it created tensions. Open civil war breaks out. It goes on until 1589.
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Catherine de Medici
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(1559-1589): A Machiavellian Princess?
Instead, Henry II’s wife Catherine Medici (from Medici family) was a strong willed catholic that ruled as a regent for Francis II. She was a domineering ruler. The Hugenot nobility thought this was a chance to exert its power. During her regency, two great families vie for power. |
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St. Bartholemew’s Day Massacre
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1572
Shows how brutal things got in the civil war. It’s the quintessential religious brutality moment of the reformation. August 24, 1572, Daughter of Henry II & Catherine Medici was supposed to marry Henry of Navarre. It was to be a marriage of reconciliation (protestant & catholic). But on the night of the wedding, the supporters of the church murdered the protestants who had come to Paris for the wedding. Suspicion is with Catherine for this incident. The result was that 10,000 protestants were murdered by a catholic mob that was ordered to attack from someone. Tens of thousands of more people were murdered in subsequent weeks as violence spreads. Each side is justifying action by defining the other as something less than human. There is dehumanizing rhetoric. This war goes on for 3 decades. Some estimate up to a million deaths. |
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Henry of Navarre
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Final stage of the war is in 1589 when Henry III dies. Next in line was Henry of Navarre. Henry was born a Calvinist. But in 1562, he followed his father in converting to Catholicism. As a young man, he re-embraced Calvinism & converts again but in order to be king he needed to convert to Catholic again. “Paris is worth one mass” meaning it’s worth it to convert to get power. Henry wanted to reestablish stability in France by ending the religious wars & converting was one way to do this. Shows how political religious ties were. The best way to end stability was to grant toleration to Calvinists.
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The Edict of Nantes
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1598 Edict of Nantes. It formally ends French wars of Religion by granting Calvinists the right to practice their religion. It recognizes them as a religious minority in a Catholic majority. It gave Huguenots the right to hold protestant services in their homes & towns where they were the majority. It gave them the same civil rights as Catholics. Ultimately though, it’s an attempt to buy religious peace. Works until King Louis XIV revoked it. the problem though was that French Catholics never fully supported it & subsequent kings tried to undermine it. So it was always tenuous between these two groups. For almost a century, it did provide a foundation for stability that allowed French monarchy to recover & centralize power even further.
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Narratives of European Expansion
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Essay Question. How have historians handled this topic in the past? This is one of the most controversial topics. Nowhere are the politics of history more prominent than in the debate on European expansion. This debate shapes how we think about ourselves as westerners. This debate sums up western civilization. For a long time, the “discoveries” & conquests of the “New” World was celebrated as one of the great episodes of western history. Viewed as a sign of European progress and ambition and western cultural superiority. Triumph of western technology. It is considered to be crucial to the economic/political modernization in Europe. It stimulates western civ. So this old narrative that had dominated the way westerners thoughts is not necessarily wrong. But it’s also highly problematic because it minimalizes the destructive impact. This narrative exculpates everything the Europeans did. It suggests “that’s just life” and lets them off the hook. In 1960-1970s historians begin to argue that the older narrative perpetuated the notions of superiority that westerns had long held while also downplays the destruction imposed. This older narrative was embraced by people of the US & it helped them shape their own narrative on Native Americans. Critics on this old way said it justified western imperialism. They argue that US is continuing western imperialism under a different guise. All together those critical wanted to see a new narrative that would force westerners to rethink themselves & how they act. This debate over how to treat the history comes to a head in 1992. What should we tell school children? Historians were helping to draw a new set of history standards for Congress. It’s part of the Culture Wars of the 1990s. Talk about the politics of history using this event as an example
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Prince Henry the Navigator
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(1394 –1460). He was a Portuguese prince. Nobody called him that though (part of history’s narrative). The church was also willing to support expeditions by lending money. Jesuit missionaries become some of the most important leaders.
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Caravel & Astrolabe
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Europeans had new technology in sailing to help. The astrolabe was one of the new instruments that allowed you to chart your way by using the stars. New ships like the Caravel also. It was important to be able to have enough room for food for long trips AND have room to bring things back from new land for profit. You needed a huge ship.
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Juan de Sepulveda
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Sepulveda thought they should be given a choice: embrace us or be slaughtered. It was a “just” war against the barbarians.
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Bartoleme de las Casas
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Just as important as these social/economic consequences are also the consequences for European cultural identity. Europeans now have a new “other” against who they can define themselves & they don’t’ know how to treat this new other. There’s a debate that emerges about how the new people should be treated. And you see it take shape in 1550. Two guys were arguing before Charles how they should be treated. Las Cases thought they should be treated like children & led to god. In these 2 texts by these two, we see origins of two positions about how Europeans should teacher non-Europeans that continues to this day. In Las Cases we see a champion for human rights for non-westerners.
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Putting Out System
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The New Merchant Class vs. the Guilds: They develop the “Putting out” system. Rather than buying goods from craftsmen/guilds, merchants began to hire out some of the peasant labor to make things for them. They took advantage of the dispossessed peasants & supplied them with the raw materials to make goods. Merchants had better access to these raw materials too. They paid peasants a wage or set price for amount of product produced. So merchants control all ends of the spectrum of commercial process. Again, it’s much more efficient than the medieval guilds that were conservative & didn’t have the same access to raw materials & labor. Merchants are circumventing the old guild economy. Guilds hated this. They petitioned against it. this is not industrialization (that occurs in factories). These poor workers are making things by hand the same way as craftsmen, just not part of the guilds. The result of this system (Proto-industrialization) is a much larger market for manufactured goods.
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Enclosure
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Landlords, first in England, begin a process known as Enclosure. Almost all great economic changes first start with a change in agriculture. Enclosure fundamentally reshapes the economy. Landlords end practice of giving heritable leases (inheritable leases). So when a peasant dies, land goes back to the landlord. They also begin to raise rents on the land to the point where peasants can’t afford it. also, they don’t allow peasants to farm the common lands (owned by the lord but he didn’t use them). Landlords begin enclosing the common lands behind stone walls and using them themselves. This process of enclosure forces many peasants off the land and then they go back onto the land but this time to work as wage earners. When you have these much bigger farms, they are also much more efficient & can be worked with fewer hands. So some peasants don’t get to come back as wage workers but instead form a new class of potential wage workers to do other stuff like making things, manufacture goods, textiles. So enclosure helps streamline a market based agriculture geared towards production for profit. It finishes off manorial economy & renders many peasants economically obsolete & creates a new pool of labor to do other things.
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Joint-Stock Companies
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This expansion of trade/manufacturing also leads to new financial innovations & capital markets. Banking was already expanding. It lent money out with interest rates. These banks continue to expand & internationalize. They set up branches in different countries & concept of credit begins to emerge. ultimately, people are more likely to put money in the bank instead of under mattresses. Banks then organized that money. This leads to more investment & capital being put back into the economy which leads to greater production. Another important innovation is the joint-stock company. Originally for expeditions to new world. They were created as a way to pool money of a lot of small investors (spread the risk out among many people) and thereby finance new larger businesses. An individual would buy a share in a JS company. If they did well, the investment was returned. The individual could also sell stocks. Soon a whole market emerged – stock market. Stocks become depersonalized. They can be bought/sold. Another famous company is the Massachusetts Bay Company put together by Puritan stock holders. They play a key role in colonization of America. These JS company & stock markets represent a much more effective way to organize capital.
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East India Company
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One of the earliest company is the East India Company. Its primary goal was to import tea & other goods from east Indies. It becomes an agent of British imperialism.
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Great Inflation
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Also, Europe’s population has completely recovered from 14th century crisis by this point. Doubles in fact. When you have more people, there is more demand. Prices go up. This general rise in prices helps fuel the Great Inflation of the 16-17th century. Money loses value with inflation. This inflation that occurs helps stimulate economic growth. If you know your money will be worth less next year, you are more induced to spend it now or invest it in something that will give a greater return. It stimulates economic activity. Don’t want inflation too much though. One of the great fears isn’t just of inflation, but also that people save too much. Deflation could arise. Inflation isn’t such a bad thing. The increase in population & rise in prices affects patterns in land use. Land is becoming scarcer. As a result of this scarcity, landlords who had been renting their land to peasants wanted their land back to farm themselves & sell the produce in the rising market economy for agricultural goods.
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mercantilism (vs. capitalism)
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The most important way states sought to maintain & increase activity was to maintain a favorable balance of trade. This is the heart of economic philosophy – mercantilism. It is like a state sponsored capitalism. Regulates & guides economy to be competitive in global market. In 1651 Navigation Act passed. They said only goods carried on English ships could enter into London ports (major hub of commerce). American merchants hated this – one of reasons for rebellion. Overall goal of mercantilism is to protect domestic economy. Adam Smith’s “Wealth of Nations” is most famous book on this. Mercantilism can be seen as a first stage for preparing a country for capitalism. It protects domestic industries & increases competitiveness in external trade. State plays an enormous role in economic growth. This is not capitalism though. Mercantilism is based on idea that there is a fixed amount of wealth while capitalism is based on idea that new wealth can be generated based on new technologies which can increase the size of the pie. Capitalism also based on idea of free trade. Govt shouldn’t intervene (although it has never existed) it exists only on ideal level. Mercantilism creates foundation for capitalist economics to emerge.
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Jean Baptiste Colbert
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(1619-1683): The “Paradox” of Mercantilism. The most famous proponent of mercantilism was Jean Colbert. He thought there was a fixed amount of wealth in the world. You want to increase your share of the pie, so you need a bigger piece. The best way to do that is by running a favorable balance of trade. You can have trade tariffs to help. Making those expensive promotes exports and not imports. You can also give your companies a monopoly on trade (exclusive control over economic activity). The English did this for East India Company with tea.
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The Royal Society
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(1662). Powerful monarchs like Louis 14th had an interest in cultivating science. Also if they were interested in science, it was a sign of their intellect as kings. Early modern states developed some of the first modern academies such as The Royal Society (English). It's an institutional reason why scientific thinking succeeds.
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Francis Bacon
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Empiricism, Novum Organum (1620), Inductive Reasoning. Bacon was a critic of scholasticism & REN humanism because he thought they focused on abstract problems. They did not provide practical knowledge to actually improve the world. So instead of thinking abstractly, he seeks to detach philosophy from science by insisting on empiricism. All true knowledge can only come from observation & experience of material world. From observation of the particular, you can arrive at general theories of what is true. He develops the idea in Novum Organum (1620). THIS IS AN ID!!!! Talk about empiricism with it & method of obtaining truth. In his book, he shows how you first collect data then draw conclusions about them. This is called inductive reasoning. He was also an author & wrote New Atlantis about utopias. In this utopia, science provides the answer to all of humanities problems. This can be seen as the first work of science fiction.
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Empiricism
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talk about Bacon vs. Descartes. theory that all knowledge is derived from sense-experience. stimulated by rising in experimental science during 17-18th centuries.
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Epistemology
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theory of knowledge, investigation of what distinguishes justified belief from opinion. “How do you know what you know is actually true”. It’s a theory of knowledge and the SR invents a new way of proving truths. The SR provides a new epistemology for doing this. It’s based on things like math equations, observations, & rigorous methods for testing the validity (scientific method). The development of this new epistemology based on the demonstrability of truth demonstrates a paradigm shift in thought.
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inductive vs. deductive reasoning
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You start from one simple truth and then get more specific (deductive reasoning). In Bacon's book, he shows how you first collect data then draw conclusions about them. This is called inductive reasoning.
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René Descartes (Discourse on Method)
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He believes empirical observation is important as part of a method of obtaining truth, but he is much more concerned about truths arrived at through logical thought & math. He really likes math because he thinks it is a system of knowledge that is untainted by cultural biases. It’s a perfect system that can exist in the mind & can be applied to material world. Truths can be deduced from math. He argues truths can be established wholly within the mind of the autonomous thinking subject. Humans use capacity for logic to reach truths. They did not need to rely on sensory observations alone. This is where he differs from Bacon. Descartes says senses can mislead you such as the Pencil in the Glass. It suggests there are limits to empiricism that can only be overcome through rational metaphysical philosophy. He argues all problems need to be separated into as many parts as necessary. You start from one simple truth and then get more specific (deductive reasoning). What makes him significant is that he argues in order to be truly legitimate empirical observations need an overarching theory to back them up. They need a kind of language. Any type of knowledge in order to be legitimate must have a supporting infrastructure of language to give it legitimacy. Whenever you start arguing scientifically, you are employing a language of science for example. It gives validity to those truths you are arriving at thru SR. it’s a way of proving what you know is true. How does he do this? He begins by doubting everything & then you employ reason to systematically obtain truths that you can then develop more particular truths more. The first thing he doubts is his own existence. He then thinks about it & then says “I think therefore I am”. It is one unarguable truth that he can use to explain further truths. He is importance because he harmonizes metaphysical & philosophic. The second truth he proves is God’s existence. He is aware that his thinking rubs the church the wrong way. He is still trying to harmonize religion with new science. He does this by separating out two realms. There’s a long term legacy of Plato in his thinking as well.
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Sovereignty
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A state is sovereign if it has a monopoly on exercise of political power in its own country. A sovereign state can determine/enforce laws. Those powers are based on the state’s monopoly on use of coercive force. The centralized state exercises this monopoly inside own territory.
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Centralization
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Modern states are also centralized (power is accumulated in the hands of a certain set of institutions). That power is superior to local institutions. Centralization of state power began in medieval period (hundred years war). But the truly centralized state only emerges when old feudal nobility collapses. While centralized governments have different forms, the result is always a steady increase in state power. it’s a hallmark of the modern period. It culminates with the development of totalitarian states in 20th century. Some political scientists have argued that the modern state faces a variety of forces (economic, international) that are eroding its sovereignty.
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Absolutism
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Absolutism refers to a system of govt in which sovereignty resides in the monarch himself. Absolute monarchs are beholden to no other source of power in their realm. Term comes about in late enlightenment period. It was used by critiques of the type of government. Liberals invent this term to refer to it. these monarchs do not have absolute control tho within the country. It’s not totalitarian. They don’t have technological means to control everything in the nation. Totalitarian rulers never have that power either, but it’s easier & they get closer to it.
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Thomas Hobbes & Leviathan
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He rejects notion of a divine right of kings. In 1651, he wrote Leviathan where he argues for the need for all societies to have an absolute sovereign power. according to hobbes, all men are equal. There is no divinely inspired hierarchy. But unlike locke, hobbes is more pessimistic. He argued the equality of individuals also led to an inevitable competition among them. People sought their own selfish self-interest. That leads to conflict & struggle & violence. This is the basic state of mankind in nature before development of civil government. “State of nature”. In the state of nature, “life is solitary… brutish & short”. The only way to prevent this natural struggle was to establish a civil government & it could only be established when the competing individuals agreed to transfer their rights to a king. They give up equality & freedom in state of nature. They can’t get it back once they give it up. Sovereign will protect each other from their brutish nature. Locke believed if a sovereign abused authority, they can overthrow him. Hobbes did not believe that though. There was no checks & balance on the sovereign ruler. Hobbes is developing a modern social contract theory. People give up rights & enter into a contract with others & sovereign to enter a civil government. They lose a lot but life will be better. Locke also has a concept but he argues if contract is broken, people can overthrow sovereign & renew contract. Why is this important? Hobbes has developed a rational justification for absolutism that is based on a secular understanding of human nature. God is not involved with this at all. We see a continuation of secularizing political thought.
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Concordat of Bologna
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1516. Francis I is able to force the Pope to agree to the Concordat of Bologna. The Concordat gives the French King the right to appoint members of the church hierarchy. They gain the right to invest church officials. As a result, the catholic church in France basically becomes a state church. Today known as Gallican church. It’s still catholic in terms of doctrine, but basically run by the state. It’s the culmination of a 2 century long struggle of kings against religion.
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Cardinal Richelieu
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(1624-1642). . In 1624 Louis 13th appointed Cardinal Richelieu from Gallican Catholic Church to be his prime minister. It’s Rcihelieu who is the architect of modern French absolutism. He is the defacto leader of france until he dies in 1642. He wanted to increase power of the French state. He believed strongly in divine right of kings. He believed ends justified the means. Anything that increased state power was justified. The reason of the state “raison d’etat” coined by him. Whatever serves the interest of the state was a justifiable policy. He was like a Machiavellian in action. The first thing he did was undermine the political independent of protestants. When they resisted, he moved aggressively against them (in city of La Rochelle). He laid siege & starved thousands because they refused to acknowledge preeminence of the king. He went after nobility as well. He marginalized French nobles & reduced their roles as king advisors. Most importantly he introduces a new administrative system in which royal advisors were sent out from Paris into the provinces to rule over new administrative districts. They are run by royal officials (entendents). This system continued to expand under Louis 14th. Until this time, kings had relied on local nobles to government. Now the king doesn’t have to rely on the nobles as much. He also doesn’t mind drawing on other classes for finding new officials. Members of the new merchant classes. All together this creates a much more effective centrally controlled bureaucracy. Finally he intervenes in 30 years war. It was a great religious war in Germany. It puts catholics against protestants. Richelieu, a catholic cardinal, intervenes on side of the protestant princes because he is afraid the catholic forces will get too powerful. He will oppress protestants to a degree inside france but outside he supports them. He sees it as an interest for the French state. The result of the intervention was that France emerges as the most powerful country in Europe. So by the time he dies, Richelieu had enormously expanded the French monarchy at expense of nobility.
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raison d'état
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Anything that increased state power was justified. The reason of the state “raison d’etat” coined by him. Whatever serves the interest of the state was a justifiable policy.
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Louis XIV
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(1643/1661-1715). Only 5 when comes to power. so until 1661 France is ruled by Cardinal Mazarin. He is the successor to Richelieu. While Louis 14th was a boy, the nobility took this as a time to rebel. The Fronde (sling people use to smash windows). This was a revolt of nobles (& some commoners) against the encroachments of royal power. it is put down brutally by French army & results in a further reduction of noble power. it left an indelible mark on Louis 14th. He makes it his mission never to allow something like this to happen again. He continues this project to erode French nobility. He emancipates himself from Mazarin. Louis likes to rule personally & do stuff himself. All power, all sovereignty resided in his person “L’etat, c’est moi”. He was a state with a big army. He tried to regulate all aspects he could of the economy.He wanted to increase wealth of his nation. He continues centralization. He creates a bit of a police state.
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Versailles
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He build the great palace at Versailles. It is an enormous palace. He brings nobles to Versailles where they can bask in his glory as the Sun King. They held parties, spent money, etc. it made them increasingly dependent on louis. He domesticated the nobility & made them like court pets. They are robbed of power but feel good about themselves because they are having fun. Other historians though, argues the nobility willingly did this. They were losing status anyway so it was a way to maintain their status.
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Nobles of the Robe vs. Nobles of the Sword
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Louis 14th also creates an entirely new class of nobles (Nobles of the Robe). They are nobles who are ennobled by Louis & thus directly dependent on him for their status. They stand in conflict with Nobles of the Sword (old feudal elite).
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The War of Spanish Succession
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1701-1713. . In 1701, Louis 14th had a great plan to put his grandson on the thrown of Spain. The Spanish Hapsburg line (which was in decline) had finally died out. There was an opening in Spain & Louis wanted to fill it. That would have given Louis control over spain. He almost succeeds but this would have greatly upset balance of power in Europe. So European countries led by England formed an alliance against him & fought wars known as Great War of Spanish Succession. The result is that the coalitions defeat Louis. French power is then held in check (even though it is still most powerful country). In process of fighting wars & building Versailles, Louis bankrupted France & monarchy.
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Tocqueville’s Thesis on the French Revolution
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Alexis de Tocqueville “Democracy in America” & wrote “The old regime & the French Revolution”. In book he argues French Revolution represented a new & more radical stage in the long process of centralization of power. he suggests absolutism only works so far in centralizing French state. It had run against clear limits. It relied too much on nobility, etc. France needed to have a revolution to overthrow absolutism & replace it with constitutionalism if centralization was to continue. The governments that emerged from French revolution were all much more powerful & centralized than any absolutist government. The revolution destroys absolutism but actually increased power of the state.
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John Locke
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(1632-1704): The most important philosopher of constitutional theory is John Locke. Founder of the enlightenment. Thomas Jefferson draws his ideas & language from Locke. He gets them through Paine but he is drawing on Locke. In a sense, they are almost plagiarizing him. In wake of glorious revolution, he writes his treatises. He was a statesman & participant of revolution. He was a radical. Locke’s political theory rests on his faith in human being’s capacity for goodness & rational thought. He is different from Hobbes who thinks people are inherently competitive & driven to conflict. Locke believed people were born as blank slates. They were inherently good & humane (or at least could be based on environment). He believed in god but was a deist (believed god created universe then let it operate on its own). According to locke, god’s purpose for human beings on earth is for them to survive & keep going. But it’s up to humans to use capacity for reason to realize god’s plan. God gave them an abundance of reason in order to do this. Locke believes he has figured out god’s plan. The means thru which human beings (who were all inherently equal) achieve god’s plan is by possessing & exercising their inalienable rights to health, life, liberty, & property. Those are the rights each individual possessing in order to ensure survival. “natural rights” because they serve god’s purpose. They are also rights that exist prior to any human government – one’s that exist in state of nature. Hobbes & Locke are part of same intellectual tradition. These rights are only revealed & exercised by the proper use of human reason. Because of rational thinking & “good individual” knows it’s a natural law everyone is equal & their survival is based on the survival of others, that individual will conclude he shouldn’t violate others’ rights. That’s a conclusion a rational human being CAN come to. They aren’t driven as much by passions as Hobbes said. In addition, rational individual will conclude best way to protect own natural rights & others’ is to transfer them to another sovereign authority – civil government. That government will be custodian of rights. Here is where he differs from Hobbes. If that civil government violates those rights, it’s the right and DUTY of those individuals to remove that government & replace it with one that will. Social contract. Locke writes his treatise after glorious revolution which established constitutional government in England & principle of popular sovereignty (power with the people but transfer it to others. Can get power back though if violated).
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Constitutionalism
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Locke puts everything together, but the evolution of constitutionalism & popular sovereignty had a long history. Even though both absolutism & constitutionalism can be considered modern forms of government, constitutionalism is the MORE modern of the two because even though it doesn’t necessarily mean democracy, it has a lot of democratic potential. It can easily be expanded. English monarch much stronger & more centralized at its creation than France. It was a feudal monarchy but tightly controlled with Norman kings at the top who had nobles’ help. They were more effective due to the feudal monarchy. In 1215, king john infringed upon these rights of his barons & they made him sign the magna carta. It was a feudal document that established habeas corpus & principle of representation. King has to consult vassals in major decisions.
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House of Commons
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1297, House of Lords & House of Commons is officially recognized. There are now two houses. Slowly, an English constitution comes into being. The constitution in middle ages & today is NOT a written document. They still don’t’ have one. A constitution can also be a set of precedents, tradition, feudal laws, magna carta, etc. this collection of written laws defined the roles of the king & subjects. This constitution continues to develop even as the king’s power continues to increase. The king’s power continues to increase because of the evolution of the constitution (one could argue).
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The Gentry
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The gentry & members of the entrepreneurial middle classes were paid more attention to. They are the ones who become increasingly dedicated to parliament’s rights. This relationship between Tutors & parliament seemed to be working well, but then Elizabeth died in 1601 and doesn’t leave a male heir so tutor line expires.
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James I
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(1601-1625): True Law of Free Monarchies. James I from Scotland is the next in line. James was very impressed with the French model of absolutism & wanted something similar in England. James is not just a king, but also recognized as heurist of absolutism. He articulates more clearly the concept of the divine right of kings. King makes the laws & parliament requests these laws are made. Parliament can’t MAKE laws, only the king can. King is master of every person. Power flows always from King down. There’s a built in check, king will rule by law because he knows it will benefit law, but recognizes he doesn’t HAVE to listen to parliament. James is initiating a conflict between parliament & monarchy that didn’t exist with Tutors. James & his son Charles are the real revolutionaries who buck the trend of shared sovereignty. It’s not parliament who are the revolutionaries but the kings themselves who are trying to build a more absolutist state.
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Charles I
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(1625-1648). Charles expands on his father’s thinking. Not only did he believe in divine right to rule, but also thought could rule without parliament. He tried to impose new taxes without consulting parliament. The right/privilege of parliament to do this had been a long tradition. Parliament protested strongly. Taxation without representation is the problem, not the actual taxes. In the Petition of Right, parliament articulates no taxation without representation. In response, Charles dissolves parliament and from 1629-1640 he never consults parliament.
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Petition of Right (1628)
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In the Petition of Right, parliament articulates no taxation without representation. In response, Charles dissolves parliament and from 1629-1640 he never consults parliament.
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Oliver Cromwell (Lord Protector)
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1653-1658. Both the king & parliament raise their own armies. Parliament’s armies (New Model Army) was more effective since they thought they were fighting a religious war. Parliament’s army led by Oliver Cromwell & defeats Charles. Charles surrenders to Scots (not new model army) but Scots turn him over. Parliament tries to execute Charles. This was a big deal since Charles was supposed to be a representation of god. It’s a huge blow to the divine right of kings.
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Charles II
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(1660-1685). Cromwell dies a& his son was supposed to succeed him but he was pushed out of power & a new parliament was called. This new one decides to restore the monarchy. They invite Charles II (Charles I’s son) to return. . This new king Charles II agrees to respect rights of parliament. Things generally worked well until he dies in 1683 & his son James II revokes the mistrust of parliament because he was a closet then open catholic.
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Bill of Rights (1688)
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James II revokes the mistrust of parliament because he was a closet then open catholic. He tries to reassert the monarchy’s traditional prerogatives over parliament. He was conspiring with Louis 14th. Parliament wasn’t giving him a large enough stipend so Louis was sending bribes. In order to keep England out, louis tries to buy him out. This breaks the straw. Members of the parliament conspire against james by inviting William & Mary (heads of dutch republic) into replace him. It was a bloodless coup. James II fled. William & mary replace him. William agrees to a Bill of Rights. It’s enumerates the rights of parliament & the English subject. It drew on the long tradition of English constitutionalism that predates the civil war & revolution. This document is not a constitituion, just a bill of rights. A part of the constitution.
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indulgences
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Along with this surge in piety, there’s a renewal of church’s materialism. the thing that represents for many the decadence, corruption, & materialism of the church is the sale of indulgences. Indulgences are a dispensation for penance. It’s an extra sacramental remission of sin. The pope gives to a sinner. Indulgences are a way of buying your way out of hell and into heaven, but there is a theological justification to it. you could cleanse soul by doing penance & other forms of good works. This would get you into heaven sooner. If you had a cleansed soul, you spent less time in purgatory. But in middle ages, there’s a belief that no matter what you did here on earth, you still were not going to get into heaven quickly. People will end up spending time in purgatory no matter what. The practice of selling indulgences begin in 11th century for knights going off into the holy land because they might not have a chance to confess sins before they die. They were originally bought / granted to people before they died. By middle of 14th century, the church started selling them to relatives to people who had already died. It was a good way to get a loved one out of purgatory early. This practice was abused as a way to generate revenue. By 15th century, it was really abused. The church sold them to fearful sinners who had a belief the end of the world was soon. It’s the sale of indulgences that is the final straw for Martin Luthor. He is concerned with theological thesis behind it. he doesn’t believe good works are the path to heaven.
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treasury of merit
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The pope though has a solution to the problem. He has access to the Treasury of Merit which is a depository for all of the good works that Jesus & the Saints had done. It’s an infinite supply of good works. The pope had the key to this & he could open it up and transfer one of these good works to a sinner. & it is sealed by a writ of indulgence. This is the theological donation. You could get a transfer for doing something good for the church like making a donation.
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johann tetzel
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1517. Not until 1517 that he openly challenges the church. Pope Leo X announced “St. Peter’s Indulgence” in order to build Saint Peter’s Cathedral. It’s a new indulgence. The pope needs other people in the church to sell them. The archbishop of Mince will do this & take a cut. He sends out Johann Tetzel to sell them. Tetzel perfects the art of selling them. He is really a traveling salesman & has his own advertisement jingle.
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95 Theses
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Selling of indulgences gets Luther into a tizzy. He rejects that good works can get you to heaven at all. October 31, 1517 he posts “95 Theses” on Wittenberg cathedral. Luther didn’t put the theses on the door to launch a rebellion on the church. They were written in latin so only scholastics could read them. What Luther wanted to do was begin a theological debate that would lead to a correction of the errors of the church. These things cannot be based on scripture but are a product of cannon law. It’s doctrine that is made on basis of laws & precedence church has established. Luther rejects sale of indulgences in his 95 theses. He also articulates his concept through salvation thru faith alone. He also challenges the monopoly of the church on the interpretation of scripture (this is what really gets him in trouble).
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Francois Rabelais
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1494-1553. Rabelais was a Frenchman who criticized social hierarchy. To critique social injustice, he also wrote highly critical & satirical stories where social order were turned on its head. Lower classes took jobs of the higher class. It’s a carnival-esque atmosphere. He also writes about human desires like sex, eating, drinking. His writing is often graphic & lude, but it sells. His most important book was Gargantua & Pantegruel, which contained many of these features.
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Gargantua and Pantegreul
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1533. Rabelais. In this book there are 2 giants. They go around France and they observe the world & also expose its flaws. They poke fun at those in authority, particularly scholastics. Remember: all of these writers help establish a long tradition of social criticism in literature that can reach a wider audience than the writing of a scholar. And it’s not always offering programs of reform. They are simply exposing the problems. Social change can be brought about thru satirical literature.
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