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86 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Patterns of System Development
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1) Invention
2) Development 3) Innovation 4) Growth 5) Competition 6) Consolidation 7) Transfer |
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Reverse Salients
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- Complex understanding of "bottlenecks"
- Lagging components or out of phase w/ rest of system - Solved by new conservative inventions - If can't be corrected within existing system, becomes a radical problem, the solution of which may lead to a new or competing system |
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Consumption Junction diagram
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Production (Company A, B, C) --> Wholesale (Supplier) ---> Retail (Store A, B) ---> Household (Consumer)
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Complex user/technology relationship
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- Developers build constraints into technologies
- Users push back on limitations they encounter - No way to determine one essential use of technology from design - Users' choices aren't always most rational - Non-users: people choose not to use tech. for many reasons |
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Lynn White's "Medieval Technology and Social Change"
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- Invention of the stirrup caused feudalism in Europe to come about
- Stirrup allowed for better mounted warfare ---> which made people w/ horses the most important in battle ---> which led to growing power of class of people who could afford horses ---> which led to need for powerful aristocracy to protect horseless peasants |
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"Whole product"
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= core product + reliability + expected product (service and support) + augmented product (expansion capabilities) + potential product (potential for future development)
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Technological differences btwn Betamax and VHS
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Betamax
- higher quality and higher $ - superior picture (but for most people no difference) - 60 minutes long, small tapes at release VHS - simpler machines, cheaper to manufacture - 2 hours long, bulky tapes at release |
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Why did Betamax fail?
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- most important: tape length
- reputation of high $$ - licensing problems - Sony disallowed porn |
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U.S. Transportation Policy
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- began 1807: Secretary of Treasury Albert Gallatin's "Report on the Subject of Public Roads and Canals"
- need for national transportation system - transportation infrastructure was local gov't-run - commerce moved via water, but was treacherous - transport system creating economic problems by 19th century - solved between 1800-1870 (partnership between federal, local gov't, private business) - became on of most advanced transportation systems in world |
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Turnpike System
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- States started transportation reform w/ toll roads
- 1st turnpike co., *Philadelphia and Lancaster Turnpike Company* (1792, 62 miles of road) - 1812: continuous highway btwn Georgia and Main and across mid-Atlantic states - 1st interstate: *Cumberland Road* --- build between 1815-1818 --- important route over Appalachian Mountains for settling west |
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Canal System
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- commerce moved on water, need for canals
- canal boom in Britain much earlier - nobody in US had experience building canals (only 3 before War of 1812) - engineers learn w/ Erie Canal --- 1817-1825 --- Lake Erie to Hudson River --- financed as project for the public good - drastically lowered transportation costs |
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Invention of Steamboat
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- 1807: first commercially successful steamboat (North River Steamboat, NYC)
- revolutionized domestic transport and industry --- allowed for upriver traffic --- faster than any other transport - helped train first-generation of US machinists |
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Gibbons v Ogden
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1824
- Federal gov't gets involved in regulating transportation - NY state law gave steamboat operating rights to two monopolies - SCOTUS rules only Congress could regulate commerce between states (commerce includes interstate waterways) |
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Moselle Steamboat Accident
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1838
- 80 die, 35 never found - Gov't now involved in regulating industry for public safety - 1838 Steamboat Act: --- Steamboat licences, regular inspection --- required low steam when stopped --- first law of its kind - 1871 Steamboat Inspection Agency: --- first federal regulatory agency --- model for other agencies (Interstate Commerce Commission, FDA, Consumer Product Safety Commission) |
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Oliver Evans
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1780s
Experiment with steam carriage |
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Early Railroads
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- 1812: First commercially successful steam locomotive (Middleton Railway, UK)
- British 5 years ahead in rail development - 1820s: railroad fever in US - 1826: Granite Railroad, MA (2 miles long) - 1830-1831: First fully American railroad --- *Charleston and Hamburg Railroad* --- completed 1833, 136 miles, longest single managed railroad - 1840s: 3326 miles of railroad in US |
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Early Rail Style
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1830s
- experimentation in railroad construction - carriage makers made first passenger cars - American locomotive style by end of 1830s --- lighter, more powerful, longer than British trains, needed for light-weight tracks built and steeper hills - by end of 1830s, more practical box shape train cars |
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Crossing the West
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- 1860: 100s of US rail companies operating
- not integrated as single network - not true technological system yet (mostly short-haul lines, each owned by different company) - 30,600 miles track, more than anywhere else in world (almost nothing in the West) - Congress solves this by giving land grants to railway companies --- 1850-1872 --- 130 million acres |
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Transcontinental Railroad
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- completed May 10, 1869
- Union Pacific Company and Central Pacific Company - Met at Promontory Point, Utah - telegraph: "done" - painting: Thomas Hill's "The Last Spike" - "Rival Monarchs" |
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Railroad System Integration
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After Civil War, efforts to standardize rail width/materials
- 1920: 254k miles of track - railroad physically integrated the 48 states |
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Railroad Business
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- big business, needed huge financing
- US stockbroking & investment banking born from this - consolidated rail: JP Morgan, Leland Stanford, Jay Gould, Cornelius Vanderbilt, George Crocker --- bought competing feeder lines, took over boards of directors, forced feeders to merge with trunk lines - 1870s: 100s of railroad companies competing with each other 1900: almost all owned by 7 (often cooperative) companies |
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Railroad Business Problems
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- 1873: Financial crisis
--- slowed growth, bankrupted many companies - 1877: Great Railroad Strike --- 45 days --- stopped trains moving in PA and Chicago --- More than 100 people killed in clashes --- President Hayes sent troops to break up strikes (cover of Harper's Weekly) |
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Railroad in Art and Culture
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- ambivalence toward railroad
- rail as symbol of progress - but also danger, speed, technology out of control - metaphors of horses, but question as to how to tame - rail changes social norms - rail allows new interactions between genders, classes, races, nationalities |
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Railroad in Victorian British Novels
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Disrupting country:
Robert Bell "The Ladder of Gold" - "whole country to be traversed and dissected by iron roads" Mrs. Frederick J. Hall "The Next of Kin" - "screeching, and coughing, and puffing" Bringing Change: George Eliot "Adam Bede" - "creates a vacuum for eager thought to rush in" World Rushing By: Dickens "Dombey and Son" - "Breasting the wind and light, the shower and sunshine, away, and still away, it rolls and roars, fierce and rapid, smooth and certain" Bringing People Together: Robert Smith Surtees "Plain or Ringlets" - "railways enable them to shoot out far away, see friends they had rarely met, and visit places they had only heard of" |
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"John Henry"
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- protest against overwork
- cold bosses - man vs machine - racial undertones |
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Rail Downfall
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- Business organization (monopolies)
- Gov't regulation (slow to respond, over-regulation) - Highway system (automobiles and trucking competition) - Public Opinion (turned against rail, favored road) - Ultimately gov't failed to control railroad in a way that allowed business to succeed |
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The Grange
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1868
Association of farmers band together, blame railroads for economic woes |
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Early Gov't Regulation
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- 1870: Illinois set rates charged by rail-owned grain warehouses
- 1877: Munn v Illinois: Supreme Court upheld law (States could regulate business) - 1889: decision reversed, only Congress regulate interstate commerce |
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Interstate Commerce Act of 1887
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- response to growing power of railroad
- unrest led by Grangers and other rural people in West - growing monopolies (rate fixing, rate discrimination) - required railroads to advertise set public rates - outlawed rate discrimination - outlawed pooling/sharing of revenue or freight - outlawed charging more for short haul than long haul under same route - created ICC to investigate/prosecute railroads operating across state lines |
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ICC Powers Limited
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- understaffed
- didn't apply to transportation within only 1 state - what's "just and reasonable" rate? - Supreme Court rules in favor of railroads almost always |
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Rail Economic Problems
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- 1893: Financial panic again, worst one
--- railroad overbuilding and bad financing, led to bank failures - American Railway Union formed by Eugene Debs (largest union at the time) - 1894: Pullman Strike --- 27 states on strike --- shut down entire rail system west of Michigan --- 30 die --- Prez Cleveland sends Army --- ARU falls apart Then, - Debs imprisoned - Cleveland forces Pullman to give up ownership of rail town - designates Labor Day as federal holiday - By 1900, only handful of major rail systems left |
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ICC Gains Power under TR
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- 1893, Railroad Safety Appliance Act
Gave ICC jurisdiction over railroad safety 1900, took effect, responsible for drop in accidents - 1903, Elkins Act (Antirebating Act) Increased penalties for rate discrimination Carriers again had to charge rates filed with ICC Led to bottleneck, ICC too small to respond to quickly - 1904, Supreme Court backed Roosevelt's anti-railroad megatrust action Prevented cooperative arrangement between two major companies on 9000 miles of track |
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Hepburn Act
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1906
- Gave ICC true power - sex max railroad rates - extend authority to bridges, terminals, ferries, oil pipelines - view railroad financial records - made way for trucking to come in and take over shipping? |
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WWI
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- pre-war: RRs still doing well, but ICC getting stronger, more trucking
- 1914: couldn't keep up with war needs - # of passengers triples between 1886-1916 - 1917: fed gov't seizes railroads for wartime use |
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Post-WWI
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1920 Transportation Act (Esch-Cummins Act)
- returned RRs to private control - ICC set minimum rates and ensure profitability - compensated RRs for losses due to fed control |
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Great Depression
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- public turned against rail, toward roads
- 1932: trucking takes over (should ICC regulate?) - many remaining small rail companies folded - rail consolidation no longer viable |
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WWII
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- RRs kept private control, mobilize for war effort
- did better than highway system - prosperity short-lived - crumbled after war |
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Declining Passenger Rail Travel
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- 1940s: regular passenger rail declining (luxury doing well)
- 1958: Transportation Act - gave ICC control over rail discontinuing passenger trains (didn't go well) - 1968: only 600 passenger trains remain |
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Downfall and Regrowth
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- 1955-1970, 100 rail workers laid off per day
- 1970s, ICC began to loosen control of railroad - 1971, Congress merged what remained of passenger rail system and created Amtrak |
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Internal Combustion Engine
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- Early engines used gases
Hydrogen gas mixtures, later coal gas - 1870, Austria, Siegfried Marcus first gasoline-powered vehicle - 1885, Germany, Karl Benz horseless carriage |
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Early Automobile Market
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- 1895, most cars from Germany (Benz) and France (P&L and Peugeot)
- By 1899, 30 US companies creating 2500 cars per year - By 1912, US manufactured as many cars as France, Britain, Germany, Italy combined |
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Ford Motor Company
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Founded by Henry Ford in 1903
1909: Ford Model T |
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Fordism
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- assembly line, mass production, inexpensive
- built by machines - conveyer belts, gravity feeds, RRs |
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Inspiration from Electricity
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- Ideas for mass production system from flow of electricity
--- can't be stored --- demand and supply go hand-in-hand --- needs seamless interconnected technological system - pushed for large-scale, continuous flow production, low consumer prices, creation of widespread market |
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Developing Model-T
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- 1914, first year full assembly-line production
Cost $490 Average monthly unfilled orders 60,000 12.5 hours to produce 1 car - 1921, Ford had 55% of automobile market - 1924, ten-millionth Model T built All-time low $290 - 1926, end of Model T, fifteen-millionth car $380, included a self-starter and balloon tires 30 seconds to produce 1 car - Model T essentially unchanged in 20 years |
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Design of Model-T
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- Simple design, 4 components
Front axle & steering Rear axle Frame Engine & transmission Simplicity in operation Simple to repair Industry of add-ons Power Lightness |
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Citroen
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1919
Founded in France Largest car manufacturer in Europe |
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General Motors
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- Founded by William Durant, 1908
- Started with horse-drawn vehicles - 1927: 45% market share (compared to Ford's 30%) |
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Roads and Railroads
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- 1893, Grangers pushed for better roads
- Office of Road Inquiry: Individual state road laws Locations of road-building materials Rail rates for transporting road materials - Good roads benefit railroads - 1901, railroads fully on board |
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Object Lesson Roads
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1893, Object Lesson roads
37 different road projects, each 1 mile long 1897-1901, Object Lesson Roads in nearly every State east of Rocky Mountains, 1904, first Survey of American Roads 2 million miles of rural public roads existed 154,000 miles surfaced with gravel, stones, or other paving materials 1905, Office of Public Roads Director "shall be a scientist and have charge of all scientific and technical work" � |
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Federal Aid Road Act of 1916
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- $75 million over 5 years to state highway agencies
- build roads where most needed - federal paid 50% - states controlled construction and maintenance - set up state highway departments |
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Post-WWI
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- demand > construction
- WWI took away many road workers to fight - federally controlled rail unable to ship road materials - growth of trucking damaged roads - states not yet linked together, no national system - Highway Industries Association, called for 50,000 mile system - 1920: Highway Research Board |
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Federal Highway Act
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1921
- linked every county seat in the US - freed trucking from need for rail - brought highway industry together with gov't - highways boomed, still couldn't keep up with auto sales |
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Great Depression
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- highway industry boomed (gov't funded)
- NIRA - Code of Fair Competition - 1st federal gas tax imposed, 1 cent/gallon - 1934 Hayden-Cartwright Act: vehicle taxes only for roads |
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Early Freeways
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- 1920s: experiments with limited access roads to lower accidents
- 1924: Italy - first limited access freeway - 1929: Germany Autobahn |
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US Freeway Push
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1930s
- FDR pushes for transcontinental superhighway - later pushed for tolls - National Resources Planning Board - World's Fair, GM Futurama exhibit |
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First US Freeways
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- 1940: Pennsylvania Turnpike
- 1940: Padadena Freeway (first non-toll freeway) |
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Eisenhower
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"Grand Plan"
- $50 billion to build 40k miles of superhighways - 1956, refused to compromise, lost control |
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Federal Aid Highway Act/National Interstate and Defense Highways Act
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- $25 billion to construct 41k miles over 10 yrs
- largest public works project in American history at time - fed gov't covered 90% of cost - taxes on gas, cars, tires |
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Interstate Highway Act
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1956
- mandated highway builders build for level of traffic expected in 1975 (not possible) - mandated road builders consult with citizens first (found way around this by not advertising meetings) - Goddard says highway engineers happy to point out that expressways increase values of suburban land adjacent to new interstates, but don't say that urban land values fall |
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Freeway Revolts
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- middle class fled cities for suburbs ("white flight")
- less public transit = less suburb jobs for urban poor - wrapped up with race tensions, "white roads through black bedrooms" |
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Atlanta, Georgia
Miami, Florida Detroit, Michigan SF |
- 1960s-1990s: prevent destruction of old, residential neighborhoods
- $900k on litigation - CAUTION (citizens against unnecessary thoroughfares in older neighborhoods) - many planned freeways cancelled in 1970s - used for public transit instead -1960s, Black Bottom: black neighborhood destroyed to build I-75 (strong musical history) - many planned FWs not built cuz of protests - BART |
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1970s, Highway Building Turns
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- 1973, Congress allowed Highway Trust Fund to be used for mass transit
- DC, after blocking freeway for 20 years, used money to build Metro - 1975, President Ford gutted gas tax Nothing previously budgeted for highway maintenance - 1976, finally Congress gave money to fixing roads |
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Electric Trolley
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- Late 19th century
- 1st streetcars horse-powered - 1873, cable cars developed in San Francisco - Electric trolley popular quickly - By 1900, almost all streetcars electric - 1920s: Start of fall --- overbuilding, regulations, turbulent economy --- car gives freedom of choice --- gov't subsidize roads, not trolleys --- rapid increase in traffic congestion --- excitement for cars |
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GM Conspiracy (1936-1950)?
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asdf
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Plane/car/railroad comparison
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- developed around same time as automobile
- took much longer to develop - required more complex scientific knowledge - advances in both science and technology |
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Early Aircraft Attempts
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- 1799: Sir George Cayley - presented 1st scientific design for fixed-wing aircraft
- 1804, built miniature glider, 1st recorded free flight - 1809, man-size version of glider - 1843, Henson's steam carriage, 1st known design for propeller-driven - 1849: "boy glider" - 1852: , Société Aérostatique et Météorologique de France |
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Wright Brothers
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1902 glider, tended to spin on 1 wing when doing slow turn
Orville crashes and nearly destroys glider 1903, Kitty Hawk, North Carolina: December 17, 10:35 am, Orville makes 1st powered flight in fully controllable aircraft capable of sustained flight 4 more flights that day, longest 59 seconds and 852 feet Gust of wind rolls aircraft over and smashes it Immediately began to develop aircraft into product 1905, have "practical flying machine" 1908, 1st passenger flight: Wilbur takes employee along for a ride - Next few years, innovations galore: float planes, flying boats, passenger aircraft, fighters & bombers |
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Start of Industry
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1905, Wright brothers tried to sell plane to government, but no interest
1909, College Park Airfield, MD Longest continuously operating airport in world Now runs aviation museum connected to the Smithsonian 1910, Orville Wright opens first commercial flight school in Montgomery 1910, 1st aviation military force, France 1911, Burgess Co. first licensed commercial aircraft manufacturer Bought licensing rights from Wright brothers to build from their patents Provided seaplanes to the military |
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WWI
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Planes 1st used for reconnaissance
Quickly developed fights, bombers Aircraft as sign of future combat Increased aircraft traffic led to construction of landing fields Led to development of aids for directing approach Real commercial efforts took off post-war |
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Gov't Regulation
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-Air Mail Act of 1925
---Private carriers responsible for airmail instead of Post Office -Air Commerce Act of 1926 ---Secretary of Commerce to designate air routes, develop air navigation systems, and license pilots and aircraft |
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Business Grows
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1933, United Airlines begins flying coast to coast
1935, Boeing designs the 307 Stratoliner 1st commercial aircraft with a pressurized cabin 1936, Pan American passenger flights across Pacific 1939, Pan American transatlantic passenger service 1947, US Air Force becomes own military branch 1948, 19 major U.S. commercial airports form Airports Operators Council Address mutual problems facing airports in the U.S. Airport operations and relations with government and industry Floyd Bennett Field: NY's first municipal airport |
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Telegraph
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- 1843: Morse builds 1st telegraph line (Balt. to DC)
- 1866: Western Union holds monopoly - 1880: crucial to US economy - Bell, Edison, Gray try for many messages simultaneously - Helmholtz apparatus: mimicked vowels via tuning forks, not transmit |
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Ear Phonautograph
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1874: sound could be translated into visible waves
- speak into it, bones vibrate. brush traced shape of sound waves on piece of smoked glass |
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Harp apparatus
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speak into transmitting harp, reeds vibrate, combination transmitted; not possible cuz would take too many reeds
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Telephone experiments
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1875: single reed could transmit and receive complex sounds over distance
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Liquid Telephone
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When he shouted into the open end of the cone, his voice made the parchment vibrate, so the needle moved slightly in relation to a contact in the cup. The needle was wired to a battery and the movement varied the strength of the current passing between the contacts, thus converting sound waves into an electric signal which travelled along a wire to a receiver.
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Start of Industry
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- 1876: Bell invents phone
- offers to sell patent to WU for $100k - 77: Bell forms Bell Telephone Company - 78: 1st switchboard in New Haven, CT --- 10,000 telephones in use - Bell gets phone monopoly |
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AT&T
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- subsidiary of American Bell Telephone Co.
-1880: American Bell creates AT&T Long Lines (create nationwide long-distance network that was profitable) - 1892: NYC --> Chicago - 1899: *takes over* |
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Grows too fast!
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1880s
- line congestion, switchboard technology couldn't handle it - no organization/plan solutions: develop copper lines, improve batteries powering phones & switchboards, Theodore Vail (general manager) supports research into tech. improvements |
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Other phone stuff
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- explicit advertising, possibly 1st PR firm bought in US by at&t
- subscription growth slow - independents turned to rural market after 1900 (farmers eagerly sought phone) - 1900: residential phones mostly elite luxury - 1909: 1/4 households had phone - AT&T monopoly: dishonest tactics to control industries; owned phone equipment manufacturers - Monopoly declines - 1912: US attorney files antitrust lawsuit against AT&T - 1913 Kingsbury Agreement: ATT divest itself of WU, would not acquire additional ind. co. -- gave ATT dominance but independents protected WWI: modern telephone system formed (better quality, chapter, more options) -- fed. gov't took over telephone for 1 year By 1914, common utility instead of luxury good - Switchboard in use til 1930s |
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More phone stuff (later)
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- is phone fundamental right?
- 1918: nationalization attempt.. regulated rates, kept rural areas affordable - natural monopoly: 1921 - Willis Graham Act: established telephone companies as natural monopolies, ICC oversaw mergers, end of phone co. competition - 1930: 80% phones were Bell - 1934: service between US and Japan ($39 for first three minutes) - have to educate users - Great Depression: 20% loss in subscriptions - by WWII, back up to 40% - by 1970: 90% |
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Start of dial phones
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- first introduced in VA in 1919
- 1929: 1/4 of phones - 1978: last US phone supposedly converted to dial - decrease of operators, peak in 1940s |
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Uneven diffusion
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1920, 35% households subscribers
1929, 42% households subscribers Adoption rates geographically and social class dependent Early phones spread fast in West Coast and Midwest Slower than would expect in Northeast South slow to start and kept lagging behind Cities faster than towns Working class still very slow to adopt |
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FCC
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1934 Federal Communications Act
- ratified existing system - explicit goal of universal service - copied ICC regulation or railroad and interstate commerce w/o price regulations - WWII diverted gov't attention from ATT investigation |
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Mobile Phones
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1946: first in St. Louis
- single antenna per region - 1948: Mobile Telephone Service |
