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91 Cards in this Set
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Copernicus, concerning the revolution of celestial spheres
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1543. From Poland, went to Italy and got into debates about planetary motion. Postulates that the Earth and planets could be centered around sun. Publishes heliocentric idea as mathematical construct before death.
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Kepler
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Rudolfine Tables. 1627. German Protestant scientist. Planets go around in ellipticals. Directly argued that Copernicus was correct
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Galileo
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1632. Dialogue concerning the two great world systems. Experimentation and observation, discoveries on motion and acceleration. Counter-Reformation catholic church tells Galileo not to spread views any more. In 1932 book gets published, seems to be defying pope, 1633 tried for heresy, sentenced to house arrest. Turning point: opens up the question of science moving outside the Catholic church
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Descartes
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1637. Discourse on Method. Deductive reasoning--conclusions based on general principles. General principles toward specific. Famous as a philosopher--arrive at sureness, truth. Reject all you know and use skepticism to get to the truth. Use doubt. God had to exist because of reason. Mind could discover universe.
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Francis Bacon
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suggested science should be based on practical ends. Inductive method--knowledge about universe through observation and experimentation.
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Jesuits
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Missionaries. Gathered great amounts of customs, languages so that they could convert them. mystical and contemplative, highly
powerful monastic order. 1) combat heresy 2) combat paganism. Established schools in Europe and overseas missionary work. Tried to learn local languages and customs, and adapt Christianity to meet local beliefs. They were welcome for awhile in China. Did not require people to give up other beliefs, just adapt Christianity to their beliefs. NO IMPACT RELIGIOUSLY ON CHINESE. They "discover" other worlds for Europeans rather than Christianizing it. Expand sense of knowable world |
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What were two things that brought a sense to Europeans that there were different worlds out there?
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Age of conquest, global trade. Brought sense from localization to globalization.
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Discovering other peoples of the world led into 2 directions
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1) new sense that there's a similarity among peoples of the world. Some notion of functional equality.
2) Europeans had to come to terms with difference. Difference in thinking about God, worshipping differently, babies, death |
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What comes with this "scientific" discovery of difference?
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gender and race. Science indicates women as inferior. More laws against women. Toward end of
17th century, "blackness" is associated with slavery and whiteness with freedom. After the legal changes of late 17th century, new interest in science in comparisons of classifications of people. Makes RACE seem like explanation. |
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Ignatius of Loyola
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Spanish knight from a local noble family, hermit, priest since 1537, and theologian, who founded the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) and was its first Superior General.[2] Ignatius emerged as a religious leader during the Counter-Reformation. Loyola's devotion to the Catholic Church was characterized by unquestioning obedience to the Catholic Church's authority and hierarchy.[3]
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4 aspects of Atlantic system plantations
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1) population growth 2) agricultural change 3) rise of cottage industry 4) "consumer revolution" and birth of middle class (bourgeois)
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JS Bach Leipzig
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"coffee cantata" (1734)- composer, wrote music about a woman who deepy loves her coffee
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Significance of coffee
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Around 1700, coffee gains popularity. Spreads to Europe and the Atlantic coast from Caribbean (slaves provide the labor). First coffeehouse London 1650s. By 1700, England had 2,000 coffeehouses. Berlin had its first by 1715.
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European consumption of coffee, tea, chocolate, sugar was...
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a sign of increase in European trade
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What was the Atlantic system?
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Triangular system of trade binding together western Europe, Africa, and Americas but also reaches Central Europe and Asia. In Europe turned into actual commodities.
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India in the trade
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Becomes a key place for supplying raw materials to Europe. Textiles are a key component. Indian goods make way to Africa and across Europe. Change of power amongst states and globally.
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Social effects of trade with the rest of the world:
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directly, very few involved with trade in 1700s. Globalization of trade made very different people connected to each other indirectly. At the most basic, plantation economy changed the consumption for ordinary people. Sugar, coffee, team becomes necessities by 19th century
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Growth of trade stimulates and is stimulated by 4 aspects:
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1) population growth-more demand. Around 1740, population begins rising and goes steadily ever since. 2) agricultural productivity-more commercial attitudes toward farming emerges 3) rise of cottage industry 4) consumer revolution- especially in cities. Means goods, things, cloth is not only produced for elite, but develops and creates middle class
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Middle class (3 Aspects )
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rise of middle class in the 18th century. Hierarchy based on wealth, not birth. 1) distinguished by profession. Non-agricultural, but can't have others do their work. Owner of coffeeshop, shopkeeper, no status of noblemen or peasantry. 2) Distinguished by income. Not rich and not poor. Some amount of disposable income. 3) define themselves culturally. Engaged in culture of consumption- places they went coffeeshops, libraries, concerts. Purchased novels, fashion depends on growth of middle class.
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Enlightenment
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common definition: cluster of ideas and attitudes that became basis of large intellectual movement, wider cultural movement and political reform movement. This was not a single doctrine and not one single set of ideas. The word doesn't even emerge until the 19th century. Diverse set of thinkers, ideas across world, source of set of ideas.
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3 ways enlightenment ideas get spread:
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1) spreading ideas by participating in institutions as professors, scientific academies, etc. 2) salon- people often became hosting gatherings (wealthy women) of semi-social/staged conversations. Social and intellectual life coincide. These mixed men and women in ways formal institutions didn't. 3) Publicizing ideas in media (wide variety)-origins in 18th century culture
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Diderot
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french thinker. Defined enlightenment- "we are promoting a revolution in men's minds to free them of prejudice." 1751-65. Encyclopedia-- alphabetical, attempted to tackle subjects that would change how people think.
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Encyclopedia
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condemned, popular, notorious. Source of ideas--scriptures and classics remain the basic texts of most education. Church and antiquity provided foundational set of ideas. However, Enlightenment and Encyclopedia begin elsewhere. Enlightenment started from idea that lack of education and tyranny of church condemned people to ignorance and accepting perceived wisdom as correct.
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3 "movements" that attempted to free people from prejudices and discover real laws of human nature.
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1) starting point was reformation--single source of truth. 2) another source was discovery of world outside Europe, gave new sense of difference. 3) scientific revolution--Descartes, newton. (both warn against normal people doing this) doubt central to enlightenment
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What were these "prejudices" that were discussed during the Enlightenment?
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1) perceived wisdom on any topic, first were religious. The enlightenment was accused of being anti-Christian. Wide range of opinions but agreed that religion needed to be reconciled with reason. TOLERATION-individuals should be free to decide on religion for themselves.
Social prejudices-- roles of women, places of origin, reaffirmed ideas of difference, political (mercantilism, kingship, dealings with poor, prostitution, begging) |
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Philosophe
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not formal philosopher, something new, thinker, critic, living in society, interested in matters of concern for society. Shared not social background but lifestyle or value system. Cosmopolitan. Saw themselves as spreading new ways of thinking
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Voltaire
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1734. Philosophical letters on the English nation. Resented privilege, injustice. Writes about the English, points out 4 fundamental aspects of England
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Voltaire's 4 fundamental aspects of England
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1) political freedom 2) intellectual freedom, 3) multiple religions tolerated 4) prizes commercial activity because of flexible social structure. Sets standard of progress. Represents what a better state would look like-- CRITIQUE OF FRANCE.
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Public opinion
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important aspect during enlightenment. People could arrive at their own judgment that might have some legitimacy.
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Social and ethical issues
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important aspect during the enlightenment. Problems dealing with poverty, how criminals are treated, education and health care entitlement. How does one encourage happiness and virtue in others? What kind of judicial system would help people? What kind of sexual and familial structures would help people's happiness?
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Name the four broad areas of politics that were affected by enlightenment
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1) reform legal system 2) educational reform 3) what to do about religious minorities 4) experiment with economic freedoms
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Reform of the legal system
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abolish torture. Established principle of "innocent until proven guilty" state shouldn't be in the
business of punishing sins. Modern day utility. 1794 "on crime and punishment" very popular and torture is banned by many monarchs. On the one hand, instituting these allowed monarchs to see themselves as Enlightened figures but also to centralize and strengthen the state. Calculate benefits of state. |
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Educational reform
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ignorance was hindering society. Increase education to free from prejudice and superstition. Not education of the masses. Common people too dumb, but imagined reforming upper classes, noble and not, often apart from church. Catherine the Great looked down on Russian culture. Believed Diderot was right, to instruct civil was to civilize it. Established school for girls, expanded publishing without ridding censorship. Monarchs was able-minded civil servants to perform tasks the state requires. Rationale--building loyalty to state, building new elite, and associate themselves with progressive ideas.
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What to do about religious minorities
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what to do about the fact that there is a minority group that refuses to act in faith of majority. Continual persecution of Jews- systematic, especially in eastern Europe. Couldn't own office, land, etc. Hapsburg monarchs required Jews to stay inside until noon on Sundays. Pogroms: organized rituals in which Jews were massacred. 1787-French Protestants granted most civil rights. Catherine the Great begins talking about toleration. Joseph II- patent of toleration--saw it as morally and economically good
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Experiment with economic freedoms
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philosphe led to economic liberation or laissez faire-let things happen with fewer restrictions. Land is a great measure of wealth
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Adam Smith
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begins to imagine new kind of thinking on free trade, slavery. Rethinking social and economic structure of European society
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Frederick the Great
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prussia- (r. 1740-1786). The German philosophes not as liberating as French philosophes. He was enamored with French culture and wanted to be remembered as Enlightened figure. 1) court as center 2) Enlightened rhetoric and discourse. "I am the first servant of the state" frees serfs, ends right of noblemen to punish, no capital punishment, slightly lessened censorship, gives exams for positions. Encourages agriculture, makes sure peasants are better off, tolerates Protestant groups, but this does not extend to Jews to protect interest of the state. Interested in making Prussia more powerful as well as moral. Writes essay on politics. Emphasizes Enlightened ideas will make state more efficient. Policies marked on fear of social chaos. Balancing human rights with traditional rights.
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Enlightened absolutism
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form of absolute monarchy or despotism in which rulers were influenced by the Enlightenment. Enlightened monarchs embraced the principles of the Enlightenment, especially its emphasis upon rationality, and applied them to their territories. They tended to allow religious toleration, freedom of speech and the press, and the right to hold private property. Most fostered the arts, sciences, and education.
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18th century absolute monarchies
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most powerful states were absolute monarchies with the exception of great Britain. France, Prussia, Russia, Hapsburgs in Austria.
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List 4 main events of the 18th century.
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1707- England and Scotland unite to form Great Britiain.
1714- English crown to House of Hanover 1739- war of Jenkins ear 1756- 7 years war/ Great War for empire |
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Frederick the Great of Prussia
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(r. 1740-1786) rise of Prussia to international acceptance. Prussian military might was the answer. He was interested in Enlightenment and scholar, but his father toughened him up so that he could focus on leadership. Couldn't do much as a monarch unless you had a powerful state. He assumed the throne and establishes more territory for himself. Prussia becomes politically a great power.
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Why did monarchs decide it was to their advantage to conquer?
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They imagines that a state was more effective internally and powerful externally as bigger states
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Why was Great Britain an exception to absolute monarchies?
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The 1688 Glorious Revolution stripped absolute monarchy from Britain. 1707- England and scotland unite to form Great Britain.
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English crown to House of Hanover
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1714. Wealthy, stable, not democratic, 1st place of successful alternative to absolutism
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3 reasons states go to war in the 18th century
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1) dynastic ambitions 2) prevent states from gaining power 3) commercial and colonial rivalries. No longer religious
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What were absolute monarchs committed to in the 18th century, particularly the 2nd half?
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Armies. To be a powerful state, must expand and protect yourself from being swallowed up. Control by state, some were drafted, some volunteer. Hierarchal- troops and officers. Social control. Economic expense, yet priority for most.
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War of Jenkins Ear
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1739. Dispute over new world problems, piracy, trade routes, control of resources can become diplomatic problems. Wars of long-term interests of states. conflict between Great Britain and Spain that lasted from 1739 to 1748, with major operations largely ended by 1742. Its unusual name, coined by Thomas Carlyle in 1858,[5] refers to an ear severed from Robert Jenkins, captain of a British merchant ship. The severed ear was subsequently exhibited before Parliament
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By 1750, what were the 5 great powers?
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Austria, Russia, Prussia, Great Britain, France.
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7 Years War
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(756-1763). the Seven Years War was the first global conflict. It had two main fronts. The first, in Europe, was the hostility between Prussia and Austria, still simmering after the War of the Austrian Succession , which expanded through alliances to include all of Europe. The second was the colonial rivalries between Britain, France and Spain.
The Seven Years War saw Britain established as the greatest colonial power, with control over India and North America seemingly secured, while Prussia emerged as the greatest power on the Continent, and the dominant force inside Germany, reducing still further the power of the Holy Roman Empire and Habsburg Austria. Frederick II of Prussia (The Great) emerges as the most remarkable leader of the war. Prussia was the smallest of the main combatants, and yet Frederick survived year after year of campaigning, and despite coming near to defeat he emerged triumphant. |
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Cesarea Beccaria
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Italian writer who wrote "Crimes and Punishment" that was influential during the Enlightmentment on legal reform
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List three king Georges and their ruling years, Great Britain
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George I (r. 1714-1727)
George II (r. 1727-1760) George III (r. 1760-1820) |
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2 ideas introduced by the Enlightenment
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1) natural rights theory: individuals have rights that don't depend on privilege or where born
2) republicanism: government can successfully stem from the power of the people. |
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After the 7 years war, describe political system of England
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leading economic and military power in England. Emerged with stable political system and ruling elite. Upper nobility- House of Lords. gentry- House of Commons. Continues to grow under George I and II, time if happiness and success.
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Changes in England under George III
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after George III in 1760, British political life sees changes with unrest and opposition in 3 sectors:
1) within parliament 2) ordinary people in cities- radicals, want to protest. Popular politics- politics in the public domain. 3) among colonial subject in North America who became insurgents. |
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Whigs vs. Tories
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in Parliament, two major politicl groups. 1- those who support broad based Protestantism and oppose king's catholicism-WHIGS and 2-supported George II and high Anglican church. Whigs dominate in practice. Whigs stand up for liberty, property, rule of law, believed they were protecting British constitution. 1760s beginnings of actual political parties. George III wants these factions to go away. Parties in parliament could be "good for the state." these two permanent opposition groups emerge, Whigs and Torries. Distinguishes Britain.
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John Wilkes
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champion for reform. Publishes article in issue no. 45 in North Briton, attacking Treaty of Paris as not good for Britain. George III orders Wilkes to be arrested for libel. H turns his arrest into a political event; makes himself a cause. Wilkes example of liberty movement--not to throw of out political process all together but to make simply expand and make British political life more inclusive.
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1763 George III
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decides to reform 13 colonies in America. 7 years war left large debt and they need revenue. He passes a series of export duties that would be imported by colonists. Idea was to tighten control on commerce and raise revenue. North America was linked and English were surprised by overwhelming response. American political leaders appealed to traditional rights of all subjects and inalienable rights of the law. Increasingly argue that taxation without representation was a case of tyranny. Some in Parliament saw this as opposition to Parliament, some Whigs identified with colonists.
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1766 Declaratory Act
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Stated Parliament had jurisdiction over colonies. Opposition mounts. 1775-1776 Tom Paine writes
common sense. July 4, 1776 Declaration of Independence. First state on consent of the governed. First successful revolution of colony over European power. |
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Louis XV
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r. 1715-1774 France
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Louis XVI
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r. 1774-1792 m. Marie Antonette
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3 areas of tension in France
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1) social history
2) political 3) intellectual and cultural |
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Social history tension in France
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France belonged to orders where people belonged to one of three: clergy, nobility, commoners. These gave social status, certain rights and an identity. Most functions, especially of defense, was taken up by military, taking it away from nobility. By the late 18th century, nobles had a lot of privilege but no function. The only way for someone without access to printing press to make discontent known is through protest. Tax rebellions, grain rebellions. Peasants represent traditional form of protest against state that is modernizing. Social and economic tensions
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Political tensions in France
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clash between traditional and changing. Modernize on one hand, absolutism.
Louis XV-customary principles must be respected. He is not bound to a document, but there is a customary understanding. Parlements were law courts in France that registered French laws. If they think that a proposal by the king violates a customary law, they can send the law back to the king. When Louis XVI wants to find new sources of revenue he sensibly wants to begin taxing the nobility. The nobility argued they were defending traditional customary rights. Louis XVI marries Marie Antonette and battles Parlement, alienates support. By 1780s, there is underground literature attacking monarchy. In addition to social tensions, monarchy has unsolved financial crisis, the king is unpopular and increasingly public opinion matters to political debate. |
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Intellectual and cultural tensions in France
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enlightenment particularly. Most radical ideas of Enlightenment occur in France. By 1770s and 80s 3rd option imagining a return to republicanism as the only just form of governing. Compromise cannot be reached. In 1789 tensions become explosive.
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Third Estate
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As the impasse in the Estates-General continued, the Third Estate became more convinced of its entitlement to liberty. Seeing that neither the king nor the other estates would acquiesce to its requests, the Third Estate began to organize within itself and recruit actively from the other estates. On June 17, 1789, bolstered by communitywide support, the Third Estate officially broke away from the Estates-General and proclaimed itself the National Assembly. In so doing, it also granted itself control over taxation. Shortly thereafter, many members of the other estates joined the cause.
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2 impactful decisions made by the National Assembly
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1) 2 kinds of citizens--active, property owners and passive, women, servants, non-property owners with civil liberties but not active politically.
2) takes over power from Catholic church, makes clergy civil servants, church property as state property. |
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National assembly gets pulled from 2 sides
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nobles and clergy say stop and the sans-culottes--working class say do more.
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The terror
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period of violence that occurred after the onset of the French Revolution, incited by conflict between rival political factions, the Girondins and the Jacobins, and marked by mass executions of "enemies of the revolution" 1793-94
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1791
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Louis XVI flees. Brought back to Paris. Sans-coulottes wants France to become a republic. Other monarchs grow nervous, tensions rise.
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1792
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national assembly decides international war might be a good idea. Revolutionary nation might be unified. National assembly decides to make revolution international
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1st consequence of making French revolution international
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1) ideas of revolution deliberately spread outside of France. The
"rights of man" not specific to France but could be spread to people's everywhere. Opens up extraordinary thinking. 2) War is a disaster from military point of view. Exacerbates financial crisis in France. Opposition to government becomes treason. 2 sides that were being pulled become even farther apart, mobs take things in their own hands. 1792- France declares itself a republic. |
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Push toward terror, 2 major initiatives
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1) reforming everyone. Re-educate people through songs, games. Change everything: language, spaces, games. Make people love republic.
2) some refused to be reformed or enlightened. Cleansing the nation of enemies- new bureaucracy to mobilize everyone for war effort and trying to punish suspects. Idea of unifying the nation. National assembly makes state more centralized than old monarchy ever did. |
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Robespierre
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goes too far by saying enemies everywhere. Denounced enemies and in 1794 seized by remaining members of National assembly and executed by decapitation.
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How was there so much global impact?
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1) ideas from the beginning picked up from the enlightenment were presented as universal ideas
2) ways they were exported: pamphlets and more largely war. By late 18th century, many European states are colonial powers competing with each other all over the world. French revolution spreads globally |
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Political thought into the 19th century
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most political thought develops in relation to the French revolution. There were defenses of traditional aspects for conservatives and saw French revolution as a counter example. Others imagines a radical new social order and saw the French revolution as a first step.
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What was the 3rd revolution?
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Revolution of Saint Domingue- 1st successful large scale slave revolt and 1st to be governed by former slaves.
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Saint Domingue
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After the loss of the 7 years war by France, they were able to hold onto to 3 places and SD was most
successful, producing a lot of revenue 1) crop-sugar 2) labor system of slavery The Haitian Revolution (1791–1804) was a slave revolt in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, which culminated in the elimination of slavery there and the founding of the Haitian republic. The Haitian Revolution was the only slave revolt which led to the founding of a state. The revolution was one of the two successful attempts, along with the American Revolution, to achieve permanent independence from a European colonial power for an American state before the 19th century. Furthermore, it is generally considered the most successful slave rebellion ever to have occurred in the Americas and as a defining moment in the history of Africans in the New World. |
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1794
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slavery abolished in French colonies
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Napoleon Bonaparte
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young general born in 1769 in Corsica (not French, no connection to France). Wins scholarship to military school, switches politics strategically at different times. Gains prominence, named General of the Army in France. fighting for the French, rewarding military people beneath him, becomes military success. Attempts to go to Egypt to conquer, does not succeed.
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Napoleon conquers Italy
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1797
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Napoleon's Egyptian campaign
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1798-99
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Napoleon and Sieyes stage a coup d' etat in France
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1799
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Crowning of Napoleon I, hereditary emperor of French republic- empire building begins
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1804
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Coup d'etat in France
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napoleon and sieyes in 1799. Overthrow of govt. Napoleon claims they are saving revolution by getting rid of any revolutionary power and putting himself in power. Calls himself the 1st counsel. Not king, not prince, but 1st counsel of the republic
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"revolutionary" ideas of Napoleon
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makes it clear he won't reverse French revolution but take parts consolidating revolutionary gains. Continues trend of centralization of government. Religious toleration, civil rights, keeps notion of equality under the law. Slowly consolidates his own power at the expense of any representative power until finally, in 1804, he proclaims himself hereditary emperor of French Republic.
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1803 Napoleon
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sells Louisiana to Americans which he acquired from Spain. Gives up on building American empire and decides to build European empire
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Napoleon's 2 ideas on building trans-European empire
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1) personal ambition. Destined to change history, imagines single handedly becoming historical event.
2)practical. Has to find a way for France's victorious power. Decides to invade England. Fails because of British control of water. |
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1810-1812 Napoleon
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height of power. Makes up places and and titles for himself and what he conquers. Has some conquered and some forced to be allied.
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1812- 3 signs tide has turned for napoleon.
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1) opposition emerges in Spain. He is soon fighting guerilla war, peasants rise up in opposition to Napoleon and all be stood for. Resistance to French universalism. Popular resistance from those who like their customs and systems.
2) Great Britain. Impossible to defeat Great Britain militarily. Napoleon invents new technique of economic warfare to destroy economy 3) even in France, people are tired of living in military state. Napoleon in 1812, decides to rally empire, stabilize whole thing and invade Russia. Disaster. Most die on the way back from Moscow. Signal for whole system to break down |
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Decline of Napoleon
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all powers mobilize against French. The enemies want Napoleon's defeat and return to independent state system. Napoleon defeated, Louis XVIII returns. Russia, Prussia, Austria and Britain start meeting in Vienna to create restoration. Napoleon comes back to Paris, Louis XVIII flees. In 100 days Napoleon promises to make it work, but in the battle of Waterloo in 1815, Napoleon is defeated and exiled to St. Helena of south American coast. He dies in 1821
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3 effects of the Napoleon era
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1) legacy makes it possible for monarchs again but not absolutism.
2) Represents end of revolution dream AND old time 3) despite reputation, legacy has two parts A) Napoleon represents exploitation of trend of centralized bureaucratic governments B) legacy of resistance to new kind if state. Resistance to enlightenment ideals. |
