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51 Cards in this Set
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1. the Saxons
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(wars 772-804) People in Northern France who warred with Charlemagne for over thirty years, they were forcibly converted to Christianity, and became the Duchy of Saxony, from which later emerged Henry the Fowler and his son Otto I in the 10th century Germanic Empire
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2. Carolingians
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(751-911) Frankish noble family that officially took over rule from the Merovingians in 751, descended from Charles Martel, significant for building an empire that spanned modern France, Germany, and Italy, also significant for the Carolingian Renaissance that instituted modes of Classical law, art, and philosophy, mostly displaced by 888, displaced in Eastern Frankia in 911, rule in fragmented West Frankia until 987
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3. Abbasids
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(750-1258) 3rd Islamic Caliphate, Persian, build capital in Baghdad after overthrowing the Umayyads who had denied power to non-Arab Muslims, ruled the former Umayyad empire except for Al-Andalus (Spain), by 900, only ruled over relatively autonomous amirs, significant for the Islamic Golden Age that preserved and translated many Classical documents still in existence
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4. Alcuin
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(730ish-804) leading scholar and teacher at the Carolingian Court by personal invitation from Charlemagne, made abbot of St. Martin’s at Tours in 804, important architect, dominant intellectual, significant for his accounts of the Viking invasions that attacked sinners as the cause
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5. Charles the Bald
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(823-877) Holy Roman Emperor from 857-877, King of West Frankia (840-877), youngest son of Louis the Pious, grandson of Charlemagne, significant for rebuilding much of Charlemagne’s empire that had been split up among his sons
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6. the Carolingian Renaissance
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era of intellectual, legal, and artistic revival occurring in the late 8th and early 9th centuries under the reign of Charlemagne, included the development of Carolingian minuscule, providing a common printing language for Europe
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7. the Plan of St Gall
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plan of the ideal monastery according to Gozbertus, Abbot of St. Gall from 816-836, significant for providing a desirable framework for having an entire community contained within a monastery of huge proportion, perhaps pointed toward the cultural influences that would come to form the Cluniac Movement
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8. Carolingian minuscule
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a writing system developed during the Carolinginian Renaissance that provided a standard for communication across Europe, used from 800-1200 in the Carolingian Empire
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9. Vikings
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called “Normen” by their contemporaries, or often simply referred to as “pagans,” the Vikings began invading Europe in the late 8th century, and continued to do so periodically until the beginning of the 11th century, the Carolingians, already weakened by internal struggle, entered into a period of true decline after the invastions began, and Francia’s ruling structure turned more provincial and feudalistic as a result
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10. Peter Sawyer
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Late 20th century historian that proposed a theory posing that pressure from population growth drove the Vikings outward from Scandinavia into Europe, his theory is not completely accepted by others, who say that Vikings were largely attracted by the large amounts of wealth that existed in Frankish monasteries, and that they did not settle until nearly 50 years after their first invasion
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11. Normandy
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a Duchy that was created as a fief from Charles III to the Vikings in 911 after invasions in the 8th century, located in the northernmost part of France
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12. the Capetians
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Dynasty descended from Hugh Capet, elected as King of Frankia from 987-996, who displaced the Carolingians, the Capetians continued on the throne until the 14th century, these kings were similar to strongmen that reigned over a largely provincial zone in the 11th century, continued much of the customs of the Carolingian period
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13. the Ottonians
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After the death of Charlemagne, the 5 duchies of Germany elected one of themselves as a strongman in the face of external military threats. As attacks increased, they gave power to the strongest, Henry I (ruled 919-936), Henry’s son Otto I (936-973) proved to be a powerful military leader, solidifying power in each of the duchies, and expanding the German empire over the Slavs to the East. The Ottonians ruled largely through reliance on church hierarchy, “the Ottonian Church sytem,” investing bishops to maintain power within the institution. The Ottonians Dynasty ended with the death of Henry II (the dude who got excommunicated) in 1024.
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14. Henry I 'the Fowler' (919-936)
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Military leader, founder of the Ottonian Dynasty, duke of Saxony from 912 until elected King in 919, during which time he greatly expanded the German empire – he was not as connected with the Papacy as his descendants, and was not anointed Holy Roman Empire
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15. the Three Orders
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Those who work (laboratores), those who fight (bellatores), those who pray (oratores). These three categories emerged in the 10th and 11th centuries to define the different spheres of society. The workers were at the bottom of society, and were in many respects serfs in the emerging feudalistic society that simply inherited their vassalage to lords at birth. The fighters and the prayers were the dominant members of society, exchanging vassalage and lordship at different levels. The fighters were often lords who saw over many vassals, and were often themselves vassals to churches whose abbots were themselves perhaps vassals to another lord.
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16. the Magyars
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Also known as the Hungarians, originally nomads who rode horses, made raids Westward into Germany during the late 9th century and early 10th, they eventually founded the Kingdom of Hungary, which helped end their raids, Henry I is also credited for ending them due to his victory over one of their armies in 955
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17. Cluny
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Founded in 910 by the duke and duchess of Aquitaine, stipulating that the monastery was the property of the Saints Peter and Paul, and designating the Pope as its protector, in this manner, Cluny led an age of reform of independent monasteries free from the control of secular authorities, the Cluniacs fulfilled the role of “those who pray,” believed to guarantee the salvation of Christians, and drawing donations from all echelons of society, growing immensely wealthy in the process
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18. William of Aquitaine
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(Duke from 893-918) Duke of Aquitaine, ruler of Auvergne, made the Cluny Abbey in 910 with stipulations providing the framework for its centrality in the 10th century Reform movement in the Church
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(1) Anselm of Bec, Saint
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(1033-1109) – Intellectual o Sought understanding of God, not satisfied by belief alone. o Proved God’s existence in Monologion. • Used tools of logic as proof. o Emphasized Christ’s humanity – characterizing 12th century theology • Humanist ideology
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(2) ‘The Twelfth Century Renaissance’
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o Entering into humanism [man as a thinking being] o Universities seen as dangerous to some when studying becomes an ends to itself. o Core areas of development: (1) logic • (2) vernacular literature • (3) theology • (4) legal studies – Roman and Canon • (5) art and architecture • (6) litterae humanianes – “human letters” • scholastic philosophy o Aristotle’s rediscovery and formation of new logic. • One key logical issue was “universals” o Things change in terms of religious belief • Berenger of Tours (1088) debate over transubstantiation, for example
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(3) Peter Abelard
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(1079-1142) o Juxtaposed opposing positions: • drew together conflicting texts on 156 key subjects in Sic et Non (Yes and No) • i.e. “That God is one and the contrary” o Declared that “nothing can be believed unless it is first understood” o Nominalist view on “universals” – do not exist and “things either individually or collectively cannot be called universals”
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(4) Bernard of Clairvaux
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(1090-1153) – Church reformist o Under Cistercian faith who claimed that “The Benedictine Rule” as foundation for their customs • Standardized in the early 12th century • Simplicity was major tenet • Spirituality of intense personal emotion o Most effective preacher of the Second Crusade o Evocation of human religious emotion
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(5) The Cistercians
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o Expanded rapidly in 12th century by offering reform and incorporating existing monasteries • Seeking austerity o More than 300 monasteries by mid-12th century (Many in France but also throughout Western Europe) o Claimed “The Benedictine Rule” as foundation for their customs but also governed by goal of simplicity. o Created new class of monks, lay brothers who could not preach (uneducated) o Spirituality of intense personal emotion w/ emphasis on humanity – Christ’s mothering
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(6) Peter Waldo
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(1140-1218) Founder of the Waldensians o Non-dualist heretical movement o Rich merchant who sold all belongings in the streets and refused to retire to a monastery. • Lived in poverty w/ followers and went about preaching • Papacy rejected Waldo’s bid to preach – saw as assuming privileges of the bishops. • Denounced, excommunicated, and exiled from Lyon (went to Italy and Spain)
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(7) Innocent III
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(1198-1216) o Studied both theology and law, saw self as ruling in place of Christ the King – kings/emperors existed to help the Pope, the real lawmaker • Sought to redefine Christianity and went against Jews/Muslims with more vigor o Endorsed Albigensian Crusade (1209-1229) in southern France o Colonization unintended consequence of 4th Crusade • Innocent wanted to re-establish Church presence in the Holy Land but Crusade diverted b/c overestimated the numbers
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(8) Cathars (aka Albigensians)
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o Heretics of 12th century in Italy, Rhineland, and southern France o Dualists: world town b/w two great forces (good and evil) • Renounced material world created by the devil • Recognized limits of bodily world and lived spiritual lives • Against Christian rules of marriage and sex b/c creating more souls for bodily damnation o As heretical movement: two eternal and equally powerful God’s w/ notions of reincarnation o Made up of two classes, the ‘perfecti’ (perfect) and ‘credentes’ (the believers)
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(9) The Albigensian Crusade
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(1209-1229) o Endorsed by Pope Innocent III – First time pope offered spiritual and secular benefits of a crusade to the Holy Land to warriors w/in Christian Europe (southern France) • Papacy driven by lands that they could claim for their own. o Political ramifications most notable • Leadership of the crusade went to the Capetian Kings in 1229 and resistance was brought under control by the French Crown then o Bernard Gui used inquisitorial techniques to rat out the Cathars but was met w/ the relentlessness of the Cathars.
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(10) Henry II
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(1154-1189) King of England o Expanded legal system and enhanced royal power/prestige • Applied a common law over chief crimes to be applicable throughout England • Habituality of law and make routine. • Churchmen objected to submission to Henry’s courts o Redefined role of King as lawmaker and ruler of the legal system
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(11) Magna Carta
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(issued in 1215) o Kingship comes under the law (contractual relationship) • Kings and aristocrats come into formal relationships o People start to think about tyranny and abuse of leadership • Forced upon King John of England and attempted to limit his powers by law and respect for aristocratic privileges. o Important step in institutionalizing England’s government • Free men entitled to common rights that king obliged to uphold • Most important and enduring legacy is right of Habeas Corpus
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(12) Frederick II
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(1194-1250) o Philosopher and scholar who emerges in broken world of post-investiture Germany o Uses Sicily as base and never bond Italy w/ Germany but lets Germany go its separate way • Acknowledges princely rule there • Germany fragments into princely domains w/ no real central government • Rise of communes in Italy w/ local cities acting politically o Papacy declares war on Frederick and excommunicates (claim he’s a heretic) but in actuality do so b/c couldn’t allow a strong monarch to encircle them. o Death ends imperial rule in Italy and sees creation and rise of local monarchs
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(13) Caffa
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(1348) o Permanent trading post on the Black Sea which acts as a trade connection b/w the East and the West in the late 13th century. o Seen as birthplace of the Black Death when it becomes under siege in 1348 and the attackers begin to die off by a mysterious illness (comes from the East) • Siegers die off and survivors flee, spreading the Black Death throughout Western Europe when they begin to arrive in ports.
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(14) yersinia pestis
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(1346-1353) o bacterium of the plague that caused the Black Death • symptoms: hemorrhages beneath the skin that begin to turn black, tumorous outgrowths and bleeding ulcerations o Estimated that up to half of the European population was killed by this disease. o Sought social isolation as confirmed by the papal abandonment of Italy to an enclosure at Avignon in southern France.
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(15) Francesco Petrarch
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(1304-1374) Literary figure – 1st Renaissance humanist o Found Cicero’s Pro Archia, a praise of poetry and copied it out when traveling in search of manuscripts of ancient authors. o Renaissance literary figure and humanist • Humanism: humans in the center and emphasis on humanity • Death as character and acceptance/fascination w/ it. • Emphasis on dignity of human beings, splendor of natural world, and nobility of reason • Emphasis on the close study of teachings/writings of antiquity.
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(16) Flavio Biondo
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(1392-1463) Italian Renaissance humanist historian o Coined the term Middle Ages o Wrote De Roma instaurata (Rome Restored) which was a reconstruction of ancient Rome • Humanist vision of restoring Rome to previous heights of grandeur o Greatest work is history of Europe in three “decades” from the plunder of Rome in 410 to current-day Italy of 1442
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(17) Studia humanitatis (studies of humanity)
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– Curriculum founded by humanists o Study of the classics and later pagan authors when church became less involved w/ humanist teaching methods at universities.
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‘Peace of God’ Movement
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: An 11th century (989 onwards) movement in Southern France where bishops sought to control the behavior of the knightly class. The bishops held forums and drawing upon bits and pieces of defunct Carolingian legislation, the bishops declared ‘the peace’ and warriors took oaths to observe it. Bishops threatened excommunication to knights who broke ‘the peace’. è The Peace of God movement was an attempt to create order. Out of this movement the concept of knighthood emerges, demonstrated by warriors who upheld church law.
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Feudalism
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: A social and economic system created in the 10th century describing the relationships among lords, vassals, and fiefs. Because of a lack of central authority, people turned to their more powerful neighbor for protection. A complex network of bonds are formed where a vassal pays homage to his lord in exchange for a fief with the vassal’s promise for support if his lord needs it. è With the lack of central authority, feudalism created a sense of order in a time of potential chaos.
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Fief
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: An estate or piece of land held on the condition of homage and the performance of services. The services are customary and specifics, usually military service. The land was granted by a superior lord and whose property it still remained.
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Homage
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: The act of the vassal-to-be promising to be the lord’s man. Sometimes done as public ceremony, it demonstrates a mutual contract of obligation to help one another. The act of homage was followed by the promise of fealty (fidelity, trust and service) è Can have multiple fealties, but can only pay homage to one lord resulting in the emergence of a complex network of relationships.
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Vassus
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(route of the word vassal): A term originating even before the Feudalism movement in the tenth century, it describes a person who enters into mutual relations with a lord, usually including military support and mutual protection. The vassal in return receives certain guarantees, usually an area of land or fief.
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Battle of the Lech
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: A battle in 955 between the Magyars (Hungarians) and troops led by the German King Otto I along the Lech River, just south of Augsburg. The Magyars had been raiding areas of the German Kingdom for decades, preying on the lack of strong late Carolingian kingship. Otto I successfully defeated the Magyars demonstrating that he was a strong ruler. è For the past century, the Magyars were thought of as the strongest military force. With the victory Otto was able to halt their raids. è After the battle his men proclaimed him Emperor. Riding on the strength of this decisive battle, Otto was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 962, demonstrating that the Church had confidence in him as a protector.
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Henry IV:
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Henry IV ruled as King of Germany from 1056 until 1106 and was crowned Holy Roman Emperor from 1084 until 1106. His reign was marked by the investiture controversy beginning with a disagreement with Pope Gregory VII over the appointment of the archbishop of Milan. Henry IV attempted to appoint the next archbishop of Milan, a tradition that previous rulers had enjoyed. Gregory VII declared that Henry did not have the right to invest in church positions. In 1076, Henry called a synod of bishops and princes to declare Gregory VII disposed. Gregory responded by excommunicating Henry within the next month. Henry preformed penance by standing barefoot in the snow for three days in front of the castle of Canossa where Gregory VII was residing. Gregory was forced to lift the excommunication just as Henry had intended. Civil war then broke out as Henry had to defeat an antiking. Gregory flip-flopped and supported the antiking causing Henry to call for his disposal once Henry had defeated the antiking. Henry laid siege to Rome and in 1084 was crowned Holy Roman Emperor by the antipope Clement III. Gregory soon died, but the controversy continued until the Concordant of Worms in 1122, where a compromise was reached between Henry V and Pope Calixtus II. è The investiture controversy weakened authority of the emperor because it allowed the papacy more control as evidenced by the crusades. è By weakening imperial authority, local lords especially in Italy grew stronger and more independent, paving the way for separatism which would be seen by the emergence of city states in Italy.
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Gregory VII
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(r. 1073-1085): Following Pope Leo IX initiatives to reform the church with increased papal authority, Pope Gregory VII was a passionate advocate of papal primacy. He believed that the pope is the head of the church and that kings and emperors had no spiritual authority. This belief in papal supremacy clashed with German King Henry IV in the investiture controversy beginning with a disagreement over the appointment of the archbishop of Milan. When Henry IV tried to appoint the bishop of Milan, Gregory VII told him to listen to the head of the church (himself). After Henry IV counterattacked calling on Gregory to resign, Gregory excommunicated and suspended Henry from office. In February of 1076, Gregory was forced to lift the excommunication after Henry stood outside of Gregory’s castle barefoot and in the snow as penance. Although conflict persisted, Gregory’s actions asserted papal authority as a separate monarchy, making papal influence felt at every level. è It set in motion the beginning of the separation of church and state è Increased papal authority which would be fully demonstrated with the Crusades.
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Canossa
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: A fortress in the Apennines provided to Pope Gregory VII from a papal supporter. Here during the investiture controversy, German King Henry IV stood outside of the castle barefoot in the snow for three days performing penance for arguing with Pope Gregory VII in 1076. After Henry IV had argued that secular rulers had the right to invest in church appointments, Gregory ended up excommunicating Henry and suspending him from office. Once Henry had preformed penance, Gregory lifted the excommunication.
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Dictatus Papae
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: A compilation of 27 statements of Papal power included in Pope Gregory VII’s register in 1075. There is debate if it was actually written by Cardinal Desudedit in 1087. The Dictatus Papae expresses the principles of Gregorian reform initiated by Pope Gregory VII. It advances the case of papal supremacy even including that the pope has the right to dispose emperors. è Dictations such as this and others included in the Dictatus Papae offset the balance between temporal and spiritual power. This soon is realized when the first crusade begins and Pope Urban II had the power to mobilize tens of thousands of troops to reclaim lands lost to the Turks.
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Concordat of Worms
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: An 1122 agreement between Pope Calixtus II and Holy Roman Emperor Henry V. This compromise brought to a close some of the issues addressed in the investiture controversy. The king was recognized as being able to invest bishops with secular authority in areas they governed but not with spiritual authority. While secular rulers continued to matter in the appointment of churchmen, the Concordat implied a new separation between kingship and priesthood. è Out of this compromise, most importantly the papacy gained a new role in secular apart from spiritual authority. It became its own monarchy, above and out of control of the Holy Roman Emperor. Pope Urban II: Pope From 1088-1099, Urban II is best known for his role in beginning the First Crusade in 1096. Ostensibly responding to a request from the Byzantine Emperor Alexios for mercenaries to assist in retaking Anatolia from the Seljuks, Urban responded by assembling a pious pilgrimage by armed militia to the Holy Land. After rousing support during the Council of Clermont, the crusade was under the leadership of the papacy. Urban II gained support from the people by granting remission of all sins to those going on the crusade. The crusaders took back areas of the Holy Land and Urban II died just 2 weeks after the crusaders were victorious in Jerusalem in July of 1099. è Urban’s ability to mobilize tens of thousands of troops and lead them accounts to political changes stemming from the investiture controversy. Papal presence was felt at all socio-economic classes. It was now more removed from secular influence and had transformed into its own monarchy. è The western church was so above western secular rule and the power of the Eastern Church that the Byzantine Emperor had to turn to the papacy for help. He did not even attempt to appeal to a secular ruler. This act demonstrates that the papacy had the most power.
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Council of Clermont
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: A council in 1095 where Pope Urban II spoke in support of fighting against the Muslims who occupied the Holy Land and where attacking the Eastern Empire. His speech marks the beginning of the First Crusade which would last until 1099. Urban II was able to mobilize tens of thousands of troops promising salvation for every participant.
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Alexios I of Komnenos
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: The Byzantine emperor from 1081 to 1118. He inherited a weakened Byzantine empire which was faced with constant warfare. The Seljuk Turks in Asia Minor constantly threatened his rule. In 1095 he sent ambassadors to appeal to Pope Urban II for mercenary forces to assist him in winning back Asia Minor. He had not expected the tens of thousands of militia to come through his lands. Alexios met with the leader of each of the crusader armies separately to extract oaths of homage from them and their promise to turn over conquered lands to the Byzantine Empire. In return, Alexios promised to supply them with provisions. At first, the westerners kept their promises and Nicea was returned along with much of Asia Minor to Byzantium in 1097. However, the crusaders then began setting up their own crusader states, including the county of Edessa and the Kingdom of Jerusalem. è If Alexios I Komnenos had never appealed to the papacy for assistance, the crusades would never had occurred. The crusades opened up communication and trade again in the Mediterranean Sea which greatly influenced European culture. Classical texts were rediscovered and new thoughts spread along with new goals amongst the Mediterranean.
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Battle of Manzikert:
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The battle of Manzikert occurred in 1071 in what is now modern day Turkey between Byzantine and Seljuk forces. Throughout the 1050s and 1060s these two forces had fought numerous indecisive battles in Anatolia. With the Seljuk’s defeating the Byzantine army in the Battle of Manzikert, Byzantium authority was severely undermined in Middle Eastern Anatolia. The Byzantine Emperor Romanos IV was captured as well and with his release, Byzantium had to forfeit many lands in Anatolia. è The fallout from Manzikert was near disastrous for the empire, with subsequent numerous civil war conflicts and an economic crisis which severely weakened the empire’s ability to adequately defend its borders. Not until Alexios I Komneos was crowned in 1081 did order return.
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Seljuk Turks
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: A group of Turkish peoples who entered Iran in 1000 and allied themselves with the caliphs of the Sunni dynasty. Between 1055 and 1092 a succession of strong Seljuk leaders caused them to proclaim themselves as rulers of a new state. With the decline of the Byzantium empire, the Turks pushed west, expanding their territory into former Byzantine lands, frequently clashing with the empire. The Turks won a decisive victory in 1071 at the Battle of Manzikert. There they defeated the Byzantines, captured Emperor Romanos IV, and gained territories in Anatolia. They were the primary target of the crusades.
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Gratian:
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A 12th century canon lawyer from Bologna who wrote the “Concord of Discordant Canons”. Apart of the humanistic movement, Gratian used the early scholastic method to solve seemingly contradictory church rulings from previous centuries. àGratian’s compilation of using logic and order to reach conclusions summarized the cultural movement of the 12th century renaissance. During this time a new phase of education emerges with universities replacing monasteries for scholarship. People were driven by learning not as a means to an end, but as an end itself. This movement sets up the stage for the Reniassance.
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