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118 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Psycholinguistics
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The study of how the human brain acquires, processes, and understands language. Not language itself, but how humans interact with language
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Phonotactics
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Rules about the ways in which phonemes combine
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Components of psycholinguistics
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comprehension, speech production, language acquisition, neurolinguistics
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Language (vs. communication system) needs to have
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-broadcast transmission (leaves head),
-naming/representation (labeling), -arbitrariness (relationship b/w sound and meaning), -productivity (able to describe new things, new use), -displacement (out of visual field), -duality of patterning (multiple levels of structure e.g. active/passive voice), -agreed upon rules and conventions, -learnability (not innate), -intentionality (not a reflex) |
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Phonology
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-individual sounds of a language
-existing phonemes, allophones, suprasegmental information, phonotactics |
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Allophone
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Possible phonetic variations of a phoneme (e.g. aspirated or non-aspirated "p" at front of word are different variations of phoneme but word has same meaning)
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Suprasegmental information
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Stress patterns, language rhythm/timing, intonation differences
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Levels of Processing
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Hierarchical structure:
*Phonology- level of sound (Phoneme as segment of language, suprasegmental above the level of segment) *Morphology and lexicon-level of word *Syntax-level of sentence *Rules of discourse- level of conversation |
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Lexicon
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mental dictionary, vocabulary
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Semantics
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meaning of a word or sentence
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Content words vs. function words
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e.g. nouns vs. articles
Processed in same way? |
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Morphology
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Rules for combining different meaning units into larger words
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Morpheme
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Smallest unit of language which has its own meaning
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Free morphemes vs. Bound morphemes
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Can stand alone (bird) vs. Can't stand alone (s in birds)
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Use of morphemes in English
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marks number, person, tense, aspect (perfect or progressive)
unlike aglutinative language which keep adding to same word |
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Syntax
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Rules on combining words together
(often hard to verbalize rules) |
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Semantic ambiguity vs. Syntactic ambiguity
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"I am going to the bank" vs. "They are cooking apples"
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Grammar explains...
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what makes certain sentences acceptable and others wrong
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Syntax explains...
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relationship b/w different words/groups of words
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What is English syntax governed by?
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Word order (as opposed to morphemes)
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Constituents
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Groups of words that sentences can be broken down into
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Phrase structure trees
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Diagram relationships between constituents (e.g. noun participle, verb participle...)
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Pragmatics
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Rules about how we use language
Discourse/conversation rules include register (politeness, speed), level of detail (child vs. adult), judging listener's prior knowledge) |
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Methodologies of learning about psycholinguistics
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-examine disorders (e.g. anomia of proper nouns means common nouns are processed differently)
-animals (if they behave similarly, ability innate?) -metalinguistic tasks (judge own language) -reaction time task (longer for difficult tasks) -human errors (if confused in noise, can tell us what sounds are similar) |
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Bottom-Up Processing
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Based entirely on signal, not influenced by higher level knowledge
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Top-Down Processing
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Prior knowledge and expectations influence perception
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Controlled vs. automatic processes
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Requiring substantial cognitive resources vs. not
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Multiple activation/serial vs. parallel
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Processed one step at a time vs. simultaneously
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Modularity
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Hypothesis that perceptual systems and language are modular, or evolutionary separated by function
(Jerry Fodor) |
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Brain- general description
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100 billion neurons, all work together
2.5 - 3lbs, "thick pudding" |
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Brain- lobes and location
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Frontal
Occipital (back) Parietal (middle, bottom) Temporal (middle, top) |
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Frontal Lobe
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Word production, motor, planning, problem solving, personality, emotions, selective attention, behavioral control
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Occipital Lobe
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Vision, visual processing, imagery, remembering what things looked like
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Parietal Lobe
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Touch
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Temporal Lobe
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Word understanding, hearing, smell, short-term memory, emotion (temporary?)
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Cerebellum
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Balance, muscle coordination
(below temporal and occipital lobes) |
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Brainstem
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Survival, arousal (breathing etc.)
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Thalamus
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Relay station, relays sensory info to cortex for processing
(center of brain) |
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Hypothalamus
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Feeding, fighting, fleeing, mating (4 Fs)
(below thalamus) |
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Hippocampus
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critical for formation of long-term memories
(hippocampus amnesia, or deterioration linked to beginning of Alzheimer's) |
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Motor strip
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Back part of frontal lobe
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Sensory strip
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Front part of parietal lobe, laid out in order of body parts (fingers/lips get more space etc.)
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Corpus callosum
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Band of 200-250 million nerve fibers that connects two hemispheres
Not only connection, but main one |
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Lateralization
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Two hemispheres responsible for opposite side of body for sensory and motor information
(for vision, info hits both eyes but sent to LH if in right visual field) |
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Left/right sided neglect
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People only see one side of visual field, can affect memory as well
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Chimeric figures
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-Two different faces put together, used to test split brain patients
-Will verbally identify right side (LH) or point to left side (RH generally used for facial identification) |
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Lateralization of language
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LH for righties and many lefties
(motor and sensory not lateralized) |
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RH and Language
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For most, can only do simple word recognition and comprehension.
Poor at syntax and speech |
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How do we know language is lateralized to LH?
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Split brain patients, dichotic listening, wada technique, imaging, injuries
Not unique to humans |
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Wada Technique
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Way of testing lateralization of speech (usually used on people prior to brain surgery)
Inject sodium amytal into carotid artery to put LH to sleep and people can't talk |
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Dichotic Listening
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Way of testing lateralization of speech on healthy people
Two ears get different signals and infer which hemisphere is responsible based on verbal response (pathway to contralateral hemisphere stronger than ipsilateral(same-side hemisphere)) |
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Dichotic Listening Recall Differences
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Music passages respond better to left ear, speech better to right ear
(Kimura did study) |
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Dichotic Listening for Music
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For experienced musicians, treat music like language with right ear advantage
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Dichotic Listening- Gender
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Women less lateralized than men
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Dichotic Listening-ASL
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Spatial skills tend to be right lateralized, but for true speakers there is same LH bias as spoken language
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Broca's aphasia
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Expressive aphasia- difficulty expressing, telegraphic speech that omits function words and grammar, labored language
Can answer questions logically but no fluency or syntax, writing also impaired, people are aware of condition |
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Where is Broca's area?
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Frontal lobe bottom left near primary motor cortex (but actual condition does not come from surface area, but deeper)
"anterior aphasia"- closer to front than Wernicke's |
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Why are aphasia often accompanied by other symptoms?
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Motor and sensory areas nearby and pure aphasia is unusual (e.g. Broca's does not affect motor, but common to have both)
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Homonulus
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Model that demonstrates to scale brain space for sensory or motor areas
e.g. mouth and hands larger |
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Where is Wernicke's area?
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Left temporal lobe near auditory processing (posterior part of first temporal lobe gyrus)
"posterior aphasia" |
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Wernicke's aphasia
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Receptive aphasia, fluent but empty, non-sensical speech, poor comprehension, logorrhea, jargon, neologisms ("new words"), impaired production
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Paragrammatic speech
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Have grammar but nothing else, no content- typical of Wernicke's aphasia
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Do people with Wernicke's aphasia have impaired priming?
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No, the presence of a related word makes them respond faster. Can understand connections, just can't express them.
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Conduction aphasia
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Can't hear something and then produce it- no repetition or imitation. Connection between reception and production is blocked.
Classic explanation is damage to arcuate fasciculus, area that connects Wernicke and Broca. (May be more complex) |
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Global aphasia
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problems with both production and comprehension, broader damage
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Pure word deafness
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Hear words as if they are foreign language, can read and produce. Auditory language problem despite being able to hear.
Bilateral damage to temporal lobes (or connections between) |
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Transcortical sensory aphasia
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Similar to Wernicke's but not as severe. Confuse words, poor comprehension. Okay repetition.
Lesion is area connecting parietal and temporal lobes behind WA |
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Transcortical motor aphasia
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Similar to Broca's but not as severe. Good comprehension, halting speech. Okay repetition.
Lesion near BA |
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Imaging appearance of conduction aphasia vs. global
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Less concentrated but broad vs. concentrated and broad
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Anomia
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difficulty naming words, tip-of-the-tongue problems. Can describe and recognize, but not name. (Can occur developmentally, not as severe as acquired.)
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Anomia lesion sites
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Various sites in parietal and temporal lobes, and angular gyrus have been suggested, not certain.
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Brain plasticity
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Ability to recover from brain damage, children are especially successful at reorganizing brain functions
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How much does localization of speech damage tell us?
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Shows correlation, that part of brain is related to disorder, but not always that simple (e.g. brain plasticity or anomia of very specific genres that defy categories)
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CT Scan
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Computerized tomography. X-ray of brain that shows structure but not function, damage not brain activity. Injected with dye as contrast agent.
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CT Scan
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Computerized tomography. X-ray of brain that shows structure but not function, damage not brain activity. Injected with dye as contrast agent.
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PET Scan
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Positron Emission Tomography. Measures changes in blood flow to show what parts of the brain are working harder. Invasive and expensive (relies on radioactive isotopes to track). Excellent spatial resolution but 30 second time delay for temporal resolution. Must use subtractive methodology.
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Subtractive methodology
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Imaging technique of process of elimination. Narrow down what you're not looking for. Relies on theory of hierarchy and came be difficult to determine. Used in PET scan
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MRI
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Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Shows struction not function with better resolution that CT. Not invasive like CT scan but expensive and magnet can be dangerous.
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Science behind MRIs
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Radiowaves cause hydrogen atoms to flip and line up. They readmit radio waves and the frequency depends on environment (liquid etc.) Requires physicists and chemists.
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fMRI
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functional Magnetic Resonance Imagining. Measures blood flow (through hydrogen/iron flow) and tissue structure. No injections, cheaper than PET, also uses sub methodology, better temp resolution but has lag of blood flow. Machine is very loud!
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ERP
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Event-Related Potential. Uses sensors on head to measure changes in electrical signals after event. Requires averaging 100s of trials per subject (limits testing). Excellent temporal resolution but poor spatial (skull not evenly shaped and results distorted. Not sensitive, only measures results of large numbers of neurons moving.
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N400 Effect
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N400= response 400 ms after word. ERP processing cost to integrating meaning of a word into a sentence when there is semantic error.
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P600
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ERP measurement for syntactic violations. Suggests that syntactic processing may occur after semantic (N400).
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MEG
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Magnetoencephalography. Like ERP, but measures magnetic changes of response to event instead of electrical.
Magnetic reactions smaller, requires great sensitivity. Better spatial resolution, no distortion from skull. Same temporal as ERP. Not dangerous but very expensive. |
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Structural Imaging
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CT Scan, MRI
No functional |
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Hemodynamic imaging
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Measures change in blood flow. fMRI, PET scan. Function and structure. Good spatial, poor temporal.
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Electrophysiological Imaging
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ERP, MEG. Functional, poor spatial, good temporal.
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vowels vs. consonants
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vocal tract relatively open vs. closure or restriction of pathway of air beyond vocal chors
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Manner of articulation- categories for consonants
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Stop, fricatives, affricates, nasals, glides, liquids
(from most closure/restriction to least) |
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Stop consonants
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blocking exit of air, complete closure of vocal tract. increases pressure of air that is eventually released. Pause in sound followed by burst in sound.
(difficult to make if you can't close gap e.g. cleft palate) |
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Fricatives
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Almost complete obstruction, air forced to small hole which created turbulence/noise. Parallel to bottlenecking.
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Affricates
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Combination of stop and fricative. Rather than letting air pressure build all the way, let escape.
Examples: "ja" as in judge, beige |
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Nasals
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Closure in oral tract and lower velum to allow air to escape through nose. Provides alternate pathway for air.
e.g. "Mom" |
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Glides
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Less restrictive consonant, not true vowel. Shift quickly in sound from one vowel to another.
e.g. y sound in "eon" or "w" sound |
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Liquids
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Less restrictive consonant. L and R -> tongue tip against soft palate, lower sides of tongue to let air exit off 2 sides.
25+ r sounds, most problematic |
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Places of articulation
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Bilabial, Labiodental, Interdental, Alveolar, Palatal, Velar
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Bilabial
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At lips
p, b, w, m |
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Labiodental
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Teeth touching lips.
f, v |
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Interdental
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Tongue between teeth.
theta ("th"), o with accent |
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Alveolar
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Tongue behind teeth
t, d, s, z, n l, r |
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Palatal
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Tongue against hard palate
forte sign (sh), number three (ja), t forte, d three, j (ya) |
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Velar
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Tongue against back of mouth
k, g, n/j (ring) |
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Voiceless sounds
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Vocal helds are wide open and air passes through throat unimpeded "sss"
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Voiced sounds
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Vocal folds close together, blocking air. Pressure builds and they open and snap back shut continuously.
"zzz" (vs. "sss") |
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Clinical issue with voiced stop consonants
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Shortest sounds in language (e.g. b, d, g). Auditory processing deficits of not hearing difference leads to disorders like dyslexia? Unclear.
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Fundamental frequency
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= FO
rate at which the vocal folds open and close. Heard as difference in pitch. We have some control over it, some controlled by biology. |
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Adduction of vocal folds
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Closed to speak
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Abduction of vocal folds
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Open to breathe
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What happens when vocal chords lengthen and tighten?
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Produces higher pitch sound
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Speech waveform
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Way of "seeing" speech
Time on x-axis, displacedment of air on y-axis. Shows opening and closing of vocal folds but not resonances. |
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Harmonics
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energy at multiples of fundamental frequency
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Source function: male/female
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Most energy at 100-120 hz is male, 160-200 hz is female
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Transfer function
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shape of vocal tract determines what sound passes through. Certain frequencies resonate and enhanced
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Output function
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source plus transfer overlap
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Source function (definition)
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signals containing energy at multiples(harmonics) of fundamental frequency, produced by glottal source
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Resonances
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Result from moving tongue and changing vocal tract shape during speech
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Formant
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Band of resonant frequences. Vowels (e.g. upside down v) have three formants
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Difference between transfer function and resonance
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Transfer function is potential, resonance is what happens when you add sound
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