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87 Cards in this Set

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abomination of desolation

a phrase used in the book of Daniel in the Hebrew Bible as well as in First Maccabees. In first Maccabees it refers to when Antiochus IV built an altar to Zeus in the second temple in Jerusalem and sacrificed swine on it.

Achaean War

The Greek Achaean League allied with the Peloponnesian states against the Roman Republic just after the Fourth Macedonian War. Polybius view the Achaean War as a crazy suicide act, and sure enough the Romans led by Mummius quickly defeated the League and disbanded it. They also sacked Corinth, stealing its treasure and art. Achea did not become a province at this point, but Greeks looked back at the Sack of Corinth and the Achaean War as the end of Greek freedom.

Actium

The Battle of Actium was a naval battle fought between Marc Antony/Cleopatra VII and Octavian, the adopted son of Caesar later named Augustus. Antony and Octavian had previously been allies in the Second Triumvirate, but Antony divorced Octavian's sister Octavia and went to Egypt, which was interpreted as a separatist movement. He started a long term affair with Cleopatra and Octavian saw her and her son by Caesar, Caesarion, as a threat. Octavian won and was able to consolidate his power over Rome and its provinces.

Agathocles (minister of Ptolemy IV)

an Egyptian Greek nobleman. He and his sister Agathoclea were introduced to Ptolemy IV by their mother and entered into his service. Agathocles served as a priest, and upon Ptolemy's death he and his allies tried to keep the monarch's death a secret so they could raid the treasury. They also formed a conspiracy with Sosibus and tried to place Agathocles on the throne. As part of their plan they murdered Arsinoe III, wife of Ptolemy IV. Their plan failed and Ptolemy V became king and Agathocles his minister. But Alexandrian Egyptians and Greeks rose up and killed Agathocles and Agathoclea was literally torn limb from limb.

Alexander Mosaic

A Roman floor mosaic from Pompeii. It is based on an original painting, but almost no paintings survive because they were too fragile. The mosaic survives because it was more durable and it was preserved by the ash. It depicts the Battle of Issus between Darius III and Alexander the Great. It shows the moment when Darius is turning to flee, showing both that Alexander is victorious but also Hellenistic art's obsession with movement. The 3D representation of the horse completely turned around is a new talent of the Hellenistic artist.

Andronicus

Macedonian astronomer who built a horologion in Athens, nicknamed the Tower of the Winds. A horologion is a device for telling time. His was octagonal and had figures carved on each side representing the eight principal winds. It originally had a bronze statue of Triton on the top with a triton in his hand which would turn with the wind to point to the direction it was blowing from.

Antiochus III the Great

Antiochus III was a Seleucid king who ruled over Syria and parts of the rest of Asia and the son of Seleucus II. He fought against the Ptolemaic Kingdom in the Fourth Syrian War but lost to Ptolemy IV at the Battle of Raphia. Despite his loss to Ptolemy, most of Antiochus' military ventures were successful and during his anabasis he reclaimed a large portion of the original Seleucid kingdom. Unlike his successor Antiochus IV he was friendly to the Jewish people. He declared himself protector of Greek freedom and waged a war against the Roman Republic on mainland Greece...only to be defeated.

Antiochus IV Epiphanes

Antiochus IV was the son of Antiochus III the Great and a king of the Seleucid Empire. He fought the Sixth Syrian War against Egypt after Ptolemy VI, Ptolemy VIII, and Cleopatra II started the war in an attempt to regain Coele-Syria. He was winning and was prepared to march on Alexandria, but he was turned away on the Day of Eleusis when Rome sent Laenas to deliver a warning. He, in contrast to his father, was hostile to the Jews and oppressed them. It's possible he was trying to show dominance over the Jews to make up for his embarrassment at being sent home by the Romans, but it backfired because he caused the Jews to revolt (Maccabean Revolt). He famously desecrated the second temple in Jerusalem and built an altar to Zeus.

Antiochus' Anabasis

Antiochus III the Great undertook an eastern expedition and tried to emulate Alexander.. He sought to regain territories originally held by the Seleucid Empire under Seleucus I. He successfully won Parthia and Bactria and renewed links with India. When he returned he made an expedition to the Persian Gulf. It was more of a PR move than anything.

Apollonius of Rhodes

Apollonius was one of the chief librarians of the Library of Alexandria. He had a long standing feud with Callimachus. For one, they were rivals for the job of librarian, and Callimachus was displeased that Apollonius won. For another, Callimachus was a proponent of very short writing and was against long epics other than Homer. But Apollonius wrote an epic poem about Jason and the Argonauts, called the Argonautica. He liked to use his knowledge of cultures and places of the Hellenistic world in his poems. He also wrote poems concerning the beginnings of Alexandria and Cyprus to please the Ptolemies, who were his literary patrons.

Archimedes of Syracuse

was a mathematician who calculated an approximate value of pi. He is famous for figuring out how to calculate volume using displacement, a revelation that supposedly came to him when he got in the bathtub and noticed the water level change. He shared this discovery by running naked through the streets yelling "Eureka!" He used this discovery to ascertain whether or not the king's crown was pure gold or had been mixed with silver.

Argonautica

The Argonautica is the only surviving Hellenistic epic poem. It was written by Apollonius of Rhoddes, one of the librarians of the Library of Alexandria and rival of Callimachus. He uses his knowledge of geography, ethnography, comparative religion, and Homeric literature but also develops the tradition of love between the hero and heroine through the tumultuous relationship of Jason and Medea.

Caesarion

Caesarion was the eldest son of Cleopatra VII. She claims he was the son of Caesar, and she and Caesarion even went to live in Rome as Caesar's guests for three years. After Caesar's assassination in 44, Caesarion and Cleopatra returned to Egypt and Caesarion was declared co-ruler at the age of three. He was the last king of the Ptolemaic Dynasty and was killed by Caesar's adopted son Octavion a few weeks after Mark Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide.

Callimachus

Callimachus was a noted poet, critic, and scholar at the Library of Alexandria and enjoyed the patronage of Ptolemy II and Ptolemy III. He wrote many works, including Hymns, Epigrams, Aitia, and many fragments of longer works. He was opposed to long written works and is famous for saying "big book big evil." His epigrams were his shortest works and thus likely his favorite. He had a long feud with Apollonius of Rhodes, who beat him for the job of head librarian at the library of Alexandria and also wrote an epic poem, Argonautica, which Callimachus did not approve of.

Cleopatra II the Sister

Cleopatra II was the daughter of Ptolemy V. She was part of two power triads. She first married her brother Ptolemy VI and then her other brother Ptolemy VIII also tried to gain power. They entered together into the Sixth Syrian War against Antiochus IV and were losing and had to call on Rome for help. Rome sent Antiochus home and then split the Ptolemaic Kingdom between the brothers. Cleopatra and Ptolemy VI ruled in Alexandria and Cyprus. After the death of Ptolemy VI she married her other brother, Ptolemy VIII Physcon. He also married her daughter, Cleopatra III, forming the second triad. Cleopatra II ruled alone for a short time, ousting her husband and daughter who fled to Cyprus. Physcon responded by killing their son and sending him to her in a box.

Cleopatra III the Wife

Cleopatra III was the daughter of Cleopatra II and Ptolemy VI. She married her uncle Ptolemy VIII Physcon, who was already married to her mother. The three enter into a strange triad of shared power. She was ousted with Physcon for a short time to Cyprus while Cleopatra II ruled independently, but she and Physcon shortly returned. After Physcon's death she and her mother ruled jointly with her son Ptolemy IX. She later expelled Ptolemy IX and replaced him with her other son Ptolemy X. Ptolemy X had her killed six years later.

Cleopatra VII

Cleopatra was the last ruler of the Ptolemaic Dynasty. The sources on her are problematic because they are biased and sexist and depict her as the devil incarnate. She was the first strong Ptolemaic ruler in a long time, and although she always ruled with a male family member it was clear that she held the actual power. She first ruled with her brother and husband Ptolemy XIII. She engages in a civil war against her brothers, and according to Polybius has herself smuggled in a carpet into Caesar's presence (whether or not she had clothes on was up to debate) and asked for his help against her brothers. He obliged and she won, but the two remained in contact and likely had an affair. She had a son named Caesarion and claimed he was Caesar's son, and in fact the two of them lived in Rome as Caesar's guest until Caesar's assassination. She then returned to Rome and declared her son co-regent. She later married Mark Antony and bore him twins. The Romans, who hated Cleopatra, saw her as corrupting a good Roman man and saw the Donations of Alexandria as proof that Cleopatra had bewitched and corrupted Mark Antony. She committed suicide when it was clear that she and Mark Antony had lost to Octavian.

Cynoscephalae

The Battle of Cynoscephalae was fought between Rome (led by Flamininus) and their allies the Aetolian League against the Antigonid Dynasty of Macedon led by Philip V. Rome won and demanded that Philip remove his garrisons from Greek cities, pay 1000 talents, release Roman prisoners, disband his navy and most of his army, and send his son to Rome as a hostage. Flamininus declared the "freedom of the Greeks" at the Isthmian Games after defeating Philip V. He had quickly learned the value of appealing to the Greek desire for freedom, and took advantage of the dramatic moment to announce said freedom. It is important to note, however, that he did not include the fetters of Greece in the list of cities he was freeing. First time the Romans defeated the Greeks in a major battle.

Day of Eleusis

During the Sixth Syrian War between Antiochus IV of the Seleucid Kingdom and Ptolemy VI, Ptolemy VIII, and Cleopatra II of the Ptolemaic Kingdom, Antiochus IV was in Eleusis preparing to march on Alexandria after successfully capturing Memphis and Cyprus. The Egyptians had appealed to the Romans, however, and they sent Laeanas to deliver a warning to Antiochus. He told Antiochus to turn around and go home, and Antiochus asked for more time to think. Laenas drew a circle around him in the sand and told him to decide before exiting the circle. He chose to retreat, losing all hope of conquering Egyptian territory.

Demetrius I Soter

Demetrius I was a Hellenistic ruler of the Seleucid Kingdom. He was the son of Seleucus IV and was sent to Rome as a hostage. He managed to escape Roman confinement and claim the Seleucid throne, instantly killing Antiochus V and Lysias. He was then challenged by the pretender Alexander Balas who claimed to also be the son of Antiochus IV. Balas was backed by Ptolemy VI and even married his daughter Cleopatra Thea. According to Polybius, Rome would have backed Demetrius except that they thought a young king such as Balas would be easier to control and their goal was to maintain the status quo. Demetrius I is infamous for his victory over the Maccabeans and killing Judas Maccabeas.

Demetrius II Nicator

Demetrius II was the son of Demetrius I Soter. He fled to Crete after his father's death because the pretender Alexander Balas had taken the throne. He was able to regain his father's throne with the help of Ptolemy VI, and Ptolemy even had his daughter Cleopatra Thea divorce Alexander Balas and marry him instead. After the death of both Ptolemy VI and Alexander Balas Demetrius ruled independently for a time, but then Diodotus conquered Antioch and declared Antiochus VI, son of Alexander Balas and Cleopatra Thea, king and Demetrius was unable to reclaim the capitol. He later marched against Mithridates and was taken prisoner. He was later rescued and restored to the throne, but he lost the Battle of Damascus and was killed at Tyre.

Demetrius of Pharos

Demetrius of Pharos was appointed client-king of Illyria after Rome defeated Queen Teuta in the First Illyrian War. According to the treaty with Rome he could not sail his ships south of Lissus, but he broke the terms of their agreement and sparked the Second Illyrian War. Rome firmly believed in upholding treaties and likely would have allowed him to do anything he wanted as long as he didn't sail south of Lissus, but he did and they were mad. The Second Illyrian War was short lived as Demetrius instantly fled to Macedon where he became a trusted advisor of Philip V. Polybius hated Demetrius and blamed him for Philip's every poor decision. He did encourage Philip to clash with Rome and always had an eye for regaining Illyria.

Diaspora

Diaspora means scattering and refers to the Jews who left the Kingdom of Judea and Roman Judea. The Diaspora Jews who were deported from Israel early lost their identity while the Judeans did not. This resulted in two different groups of Jewish people, the Diaspora Jews and the Palestinian Jews. The Diaspora Jews were losing their Hebrew and using more Greek. Some misconceptions about Diaspora Jews is that they are liberal, pro-Greek, and pro-Hellenization.

Donations of Alexandria

Cleopatra VII and Mark Antony distributed land held by Rome and Parthia amongst Cleopatra's children and conferred titles on them (particularly Caesarion). The donations were a sign of excessive pride and confidence--they were conferring lands they hadn't even conquered yet! The Romans took this as a sign of madness and attributed it to the corrupting influence of the devil-woman Cleopatra over a good Roman man. It caused a rift between Mark Antony and Rome and was factor in the Final War of the Roman Republic.

Dying Gaul

The Dying Gaul is a Roman marble of a Hellenistic original that was likely made of bronze. Romans were obsessed with Greek art and reproduced much of it, which is how we have it to study today because many of the originals do not survive. The bronze would either break or would be melted down for other uses. It was likely commissioned by Attalus I of Pergamum to commemorate his victory over the Gauls. The Dying Gaul is shown in the moment of defeat, but he is shown with respect. He is mortally wounded and has dropped his horn and sword, but valiantly still holds himself up on his shield. Their is a sense of respect for the fallen enemy. He is shown naked, as Gauls supposedly fought naked, except for his chain around his neck. The chain, spiky hair, and mustache all mark him as a barbarian. The sculpture depicts the Gaul with admiration and compassion while also marking him as defeated.

Eratosthenes of Cyrene

Eratosthenes is a famous learned man who was one of the librarians of the Library of Alexandria. He founded geography and made significant contributions to many fields. He was able to calculate the approximate circumference of the earth. Contributed to the development of latitude and longitude.

Euclid

Euclid was a Greek mathematician who taught in Alexandria during the reign of Ptolemy I Soter. He wrote the Elements in which he deduced what is now known as Euclidean Geometry from a small set of axioms. Euclidean Geometry was the dominant model until the 19th Century and Elements was the primary textbook.

Eumenes II of Pergamum

Eumenes II was king of Pergamum and a member of the Attalid Dynasty. He collaborated with Rome to oppose first Macedonian and then Seleucid expansion towards the Aegean. He defeated Antiochus III at the Battle of Magnesia. After the Peace of Apamea he received territory from Rome because Rome wanted a strong state in Asia Minor to deter future Seleucid expansion. He fell out of favor when Rome suspected him of conspiring with Perseus of Macedon. His achievements include expanding the Library of Pergamum and building a stoa on the Athenian acropolis. The Great Altar was built during his reign.

Fetters of Greece

Chalcis, Corinth, and Demetrius. Macedon held the fetters of Greece for a long time and was able to control any excessive Greek independence because he held these strategic locations. When Flamininus defeated Philip V in the Battle of Cynoscephelae he declared "freedom of the Greeks" at the Isthmian Games, but he did not include the fetters among the cities he was freeing.

Fifth Syrian War

After the death of Ptolemy IV Egypt was in turmoil because Ptolemy V was only a child and the ministers Agathocles and Sosibus started a bloody conflict over the regency. Antiochus III and Philip V saw this as an opportunity to conquer some of Ptolemy's non-Egyptian territory. They made a short lived alliance and planned to divide the conquered territories amongst themselves. Rome came to tell both leaders not to invade Rome, because they would not tolerate the supply of grain being interrupted. Neither ruler minded as neither had plans for seizing Egypt. Antiochus finally succeeded in claiming Coele-Syria for the Seleucid Kingdom, and in his treaty with Antiochus Ptolemy agreed to marry Antiochus' daughter Cleopatra I and leave the king in possession of Coele-Syria.

First Macedonian War

The First Macedonian War was technically fought by Rome and the Aetolian League and Attalus I of Pergamum against Philip V of Macedon. Philip V had formed an alliance with Carthage promising to provide protection to Carthage if Carthage also protected them. The alliance was more on paper than in reality, for the likelihood was Macedon and Carthage would never be in a situation to help each other. But Rome allied with Attalus and the Aetolian League because they were fighting Carthage and did not appreciate Macedon forming an alliance with them. Rome never really fought in the war, however, and it was more of a civil war. Macedon tried to gain parts of Illyria and Greece, but the war ended in a stalemate and everyone went home with what they had originally. The war ended with the Treaty of Pheonice at Naupactus, which was the last treaty signed without Roman involvement.

Fourth Syrian War

The Fourth Syrian War was fought between Ptolemy IV and Antiochus III. Ptolemy IV was the first weak ruler of the Ptolemaic Kingdom and Antiochus sought to take advantage of this weakness. However, Ptolemy won the war at the Battle of Raphia. Ptolemy won by allowing native Egyptians to fight, but Polybius thinks this is what led to the later Egyptian revolt. The revolt occurred so long after the Battle of Raphia, however, that it likely stemmed from other causes.

Gaius Julius Caesar

Caesar was critical to Roman history but was also influential in Hellenistic history. He entered Egypt during the civil war between himself and Pompey. Ptolemy XIII had Pompey murdered in an attempt to please Caesar, but he reportedly cried at the sight of the head. Cleopatra came to him, smuggled in a carpet, and asked for his help in her civil war against her brother. Possibly because her brother killed Pompey he agreed to help and stationed her as ruler in Egypt. He fathered Cleopatra's oldest son, Caesarion, and both Cleopatra and Caesarion came to live with him for a time in Rome. This did not win him favor among the Roman people, and for this and other factors he was assassinated in 44. He was only the second man to be named "dictator for life."

Great Altar of Pergamum

The Great Altar of Pergamum was built during the reign of Eumenes II to commemorate the defeat of the Gauls. The friezes along the base depict the battle between the Olympian gods and the giants and symbolically represents the civilization's victory over the barbarians. It is inspired by both the Parthenon friezes and the Temple of Zeus at Olympia. In Athens the friezes use mythological scenes to represent the defeat of the Persians. In the Temple of Zeus the Battle of the Lapiths and the Centaurs again represents civilization conquering barbarians, were the Lapiths are the Greeks and the Centaurs are the foreigners.

Hannibal

Hannibal led the Carthaginian army against Rome and is thus mostly relevant to Roman history. However, he did make contributions to Hellenistic history. For one, Rome became "involved" (although really, they didn't do anything) in the First Macedonian War because Hannibal had made an alliance with the Macedonians and Rome was mad at Philip V for making an alliance with their enemy. The alliance also could have been a factor for Rome's involvement in the Second Macedonian War, which was much more of an actual war. When Carthage exiled Hannibal he went to the Seleucid Kingdom, and it is possible that Rome held a grudge against Antiochus for harboring their enemy and this may have contributed to Rome's later war with Antiochus.

Hasmoneans

The Hasmoneans were the Jewish kings after the Maccabean revolt. They were a ruling family that passed rule from one member to another down the line. Simon was the first Hasmonean to actually take the title "king." The Maccabees likely became the Hasmoneans. Interestingly, they were NOT of the line of David as Jewish kings originally war, which may have contributed to the messiah culture wherein people awaited the return of the rightful king of the line of David.

Idylls

The "idylls" are the collection of all of Theocritus' poems. He wrote in many genres, including pastoral--which he is most famous for--mimes, epics, and lyrics. They were written over the course of the 3rd Century BCE

Jason (high priest)

Jason supplanted his brother Onias as high priest by bribing Antiochus IV. He was not popular and his bribery was frowned upon, but at least he was still of the same family (because the priesthood was supposed to be passed down the family line). He is only mentioned by name in Second Maccabees. He built a gymnasium, which made him unpopular among the Jews who were anti-Hellenization. He was in turn supplanted by Menelaus, who was not even from the same family!

Judas Maccabeus

Judas Maccabeus led the Maccabean Revolt against the Seleucid Kingdom. Hanukkah commemorates his restoration of the temple in Jerusalem when he removed the Hellenistic statues and influences (it is interesting to note that at this time there is no mention of the oil, initially Hanukkah was just about the restoration of the temple). He tried to make a treaty with the Romans, but it failed. He was killed by Demetrius I Soter at the battle of Elasa.

Library/Museum of Alexandria

The library and museum were originally dedicated to the muses and flourished under Ptolemaic patronage from the 3rd Century BC until the Roman conquest. The library and museum formed an intellectual cloister where a very small number of people could come together and be paid to think. Intellectual patronage was fairly unique to Ptolemaic Egypt, so basically any poet (such as Theocritus and Callimachus) spent at least some time in Alexandria.

Lock of Berenike

The Lock of Berenike was written by Callimachus and is one of the surviving fragments from the larger work Aitia that is now largely lost. the Aitia is similar to an epyllion (a shorter epic), but was a series of short stories like Metamorphoses instead of one continuous narrative. The lock of Berenike is written from the point of view of the lock of hair that was dedicated at Berenike's wedding. After her death, the lock ascended to heaven and became a constellation. It is written in the tradition of ruler cults and is thought to reference Berenike II, wife of Ptolemy III and one of the Benefactor gods.

Lucius Aemilius Paullus

Paullus was a Roman consul twice. He took over the campaign for the Third Macedonian War and put an end to the Antigonid Dynasty. His father defeated Demetrius of Pharos in the Second Illyrian War. He was the father of Scipio Amelianus, who became Polybius' friend and protector.

Lucius Licinius Lucullus

One of Sulla's lieutenants in the Second Mithridatic War.

Lucius Mummius

Mummius was a Roman statesman and general and was later named praetor. He conquered the Achaean League and brought all of Greece under Roman control. He won the Achaean War and was responsible for the Sack of Corinth, wherein statues, paintings and works of art were seized, women and children were sold into slavery, men were killed, and the city was burned. Supposedly such harsh behavior was uncharacteristic of Mummius, so Polybius attributes his tyranny to his being unable to resist the pressure of those around him.

Lucius Cornelius Sulla

Sulla was a Roman praetor, general and statesman. He fought in the first phase of the Mithridatic Wars, besieging and occupying Athens when they were working with Mithridates to declare independence. He then returned to Rome to fight a civil war with Marius in order to keep command against Mithridates. He was also engaged in the second phase of the Mithridatic War. He made a hasty treaty with Mithridates at the Peace of Dardanus because he wanted to end the war quickly and return to Rome. He was named the first ever dictator for life but he retired after just three years.

Maccabees

The Maccabees were the leaders of the Jewish Revolt--or Maccabean Revolt--against the Seleucid Empire and Antiochus IV. They later became the Hamoneans, who ruled as Jewish kings, but they are not of the line of David which may have contributed to the development of the Messiah cult that awaited the return of the rightful king. Our main sources on the Maccabees are 1 and 2 Maccabees, but these sources often do not agree with each other. Although generally, 1 Maccabees is taken to be the more reliable source. Judas Maccabeus is credited with restoring the temple in Jerusalem, which Hanukkah celebrates.

Magnesia

The Battle of Magnesia was between Rome and the Seleucid Kingdom. Antiochus III had virtually no allies, he had only the Aetolians and Ptolemy V but both abandoned him when it became clear that Rome was winning. Rome, on the other hand, had abundant allies in the Achaean League, Philip V, Rhodes, and Eumenes II of Pergamum. Rome won and it was a crippling defeat for the Seleucid Empire. Antiochus had to withdraw from Asia Minor as far as the Taurus, his territories were divided between Rome and Pergamum, he had to pay a war indemnity of a staggering 15,000 talents (15x bigger than the indemnity for Philip V), and his son Antiochus IV was sent to Rome as a hostage.

Manius Aquillius

Aquillius was a Roman an served as consul. He was a follower of Marius, who fought a civil war against Sulla. He was sent into Asia as one of the consular legates to prosecute the war against Mithridates. He was defeated, and on his retreat back to Italy he was captured. He was paraded to Pergamum and then killed by having molten gold poured down his throat--symbolic of his excessive greed.

Mark Antony

Mark Antony was second in command to Caesar himself and after Caesar's assassination he rose to power alongside Lepidus and Octavian. While Octavian built his power-base in the west Antony built his power-base in the east. For a while civil war between Antony and Octavian was put off by Antony marrying Octavian's sister Octavia. But then he went to Egypt and divorced Octavia in order to marry Cleopatra. They had twins together. At the donations of Alexandria they gave their children Roman and Parthian territory, which the Romans took as a sign of madness. Civil war broke out between them and the Roman senate declared war on Ptolemaic Egypt and also declared Antony a traitor. Rome won, and Antony killed himself when he thought Cleopatra had died.

Menelaus (high priest)

Menelaus bribed his way into the priesthood and supplanted Jason (who, coincidentally, had also bought the priesthood). The succession of high priests was supposed to remain within the family line, but Menelaus was not related to Jason and Onias. In order to pay the sum he had promised Antiochus for the priesthood he raided the temple. Onias heard of the plunder and planned to lodge a formal complaint with the king, so Menelaus had him killed. He was said to have Hellenizing tendencies. According to II Maccabees he was responsible for convincing Antiochus to Hellenize the Jewish people and was thus indirectly responsible for inciting the rebellion. He was put to death by Antiochus V for causing the revolt.

Mithridates IV of Pontus

Mithridates was the King of Pontus and Armenia Minor in northern Anatolia. He was known as one of Rome's most formidable and successful enemies. Mithridates presented himself as both Greek and Persian and appealed to Asia, Greece, and the Iranians to join forces against Rome. It is unclear to what extent Mithridates was anti-Roman from the beginning, for it appears that initially he was mainly interested in affairs in Asia Minor. He battled three major Roman generals over the course of three Mithridatic Wars: Sulla, Lucullus, and Pompey. He famously killed Aquillius by pouring molten gold down his throat. He was defeated by Pompey but was unable to commit suicide by poison because he had made himself immune by taking antidotes all his life. So he paid a guy to slit his throat.

Mouseion

The Mouseion of Alexandria served as a religious center, a residential complex, a dining hall, a cloister (peripatos) and garden, and library. It was a cultural and religious center that fostered intellectual development. For instance, sharing meals allowed people to engage in intellectual discourse as they ate. It was meant to be a place where scholars could gain royal patronage and conduct their research and composition on royal subsidies.

Naupactus

The Treaty of Pheonice at Naupactus put an end to the First Macedonian War. The First Macedonian War is a bit of a misnomer, because it's really more of a civil war. It was fought between Philip V of Macedon and the Achaean League against the Aetolian League (and technically Rome, but they were never really involved). The Treaty at Naupactus was the last treaty signed without Roman involvement. The war ended in a stalemate and everyone went home with what they had originally.

Octavia

Octavia was the sister of Octavian, the adopted son of Caesar and his heir apparent. She married Mark Antony in an attempt to prevent civil war from breaking out between Antony and Octavian. She was respected for her loyalty, nobility, and humanity and upheld traditional Roman virtues. Antony left her to marry Cleopatra, but after Cleopatra and Antony's deaths Octavia raised their children for them.

Octavian

Octavian, later known as Augustus, was the adopted son of Caesar and his heir apparent. He saw Cleopatra and her son (purportedly) from Caesar, Caesarion, as a threat. He and Mark Antony were allies together in the Second Triumvirate, but trouble was always brewing between the two. Mark Antony married Octavian's sister Octavia to try to maintain peace, but then he left her and went to Egypt and married Cleopatra--all of which Octavian viewed as a separatist movement. A civil war broke out between Octavian and Antony, and then Rome declared Antony a traitor and declared war on Ptolemaic Egypt. Octavian won the decisive Battle of Actium and the war at large, causing Antony and Cleopatra to commit suicide.

Parthians

The Parthians were a major political power in Iran. They adopted the art and culture of the Greek people. They were largely influenced by Hellenistic and Persian culture. They came into conflict Armenia and eventually the Romans. They defeated Crassus at the Battle of Carathe. Parthia experienced a large mix of culture, as seen in art and coins.

Pastoral

A pastoral is a genre in many art forms that idealizes the lives of shepherds herding livestock. In Hellenistic culture the pastoral form was frequently used in poetry and was intended for an urban audience removed from the countryside. Pastorals dealt strictly with shepherds and animals and herding, it did not deal with farming. The herding life was idealized, it was shown as lazy and there was never any bad weather or any real difficulties. It was a form of escapism. All pastorals were written in Doric. Theocritus is credited with inventing pastoral poetry, although it is likely that there were pastoral poems before his but his just happen to be the oldest surviving examples.

Peace of Apamea

The Treaty of Apamea put an end to the war between Rome and its allies against the Seleucid Empire under Antiochus III the Great. Apamea dealt a strong blow to the Seleucid Empire. Antiochus had to withdraw from Asia Minor as far as the Taurus, he had to surrender his war elephants, and he was only allowed to keep 12 war ships. Much of his territory was given to Pergamum, but the real death blow was that he was required to pay an indemnity of 15,000 talents. This sum was 15x larger than the indemnity Philip V had had to pay, and it bankrupted the Seleucid Kingdom.

Perseus

Perseus was the last independent king of Macedon and the last of the line of the Antigonid Dynasty. He felt threatened when his brother Demetrius returned from Rome (he had been taken hostage after the Battle of Cynoscephalae) and contrived to have him killed. convincing his father Philip V to poison Demetrius as a possible usurper. The Romans had favored Demetrius, and thus they disliked Perseus when he took the throne. Rome declared war on Perseus and he was defeated at the Battle of Pydna, after which Macedon came under Roman rule.

Pharsalus

The Battle of Pharsalus was a decisive battle of the Civil War between Caesar and Pompey. Pompey outnumbered Caesar's army but marched too soon and suffered a massive defeat. Pompey managed to escape the camp and flee to Egypt, but when he got there he was killed by Ptolemy XIII. He cut off his head and sent it to Caesar in an attempt to gain favor with Caesar, but Caesar was not pleased. This may have been a factor in Caesar siding with Cleopatra in the Egyptian civil war.

Philip V

Philip V was the king of Macedon and was nicknamed "the beloved of all Greeks" and compared to Alexander. He made a treaty with Carthage while Rome was losing to Carthage in the Second Punic War. It is possible that Rome held a grudge against Macedon for making a treaty with Hannibal, and this could be one of the contributing factors to Rome's involvement in the Second Macedonian War. He is engaged in both the First and Second Macedonian Wars. The first was a civil war and ended in a stalemate, but the in the second he was defeated by Rome and had to pay an indemnity of 1000 talents, remove his garrisons from Greek cities, release Roman prisoners, and send his younger son Demetrius as a hostage to Rome. By losing the Second Macedonian War he lost his control over Greece. He had previously controlled the fetters of Greece and thus been able to control Greek freedom.

Philopoemen

Philopoemen was a leader in the Achaean league. Polybius greatly admired him and in fact spoke at his funeral, so his accounts are clearly biased and in his accounts he makes it look as if Philopoemen's enemies were overly pro-Roman, while Philopoemen was realistic and recognized that it was necessary to be on good terms with Rome but also thought the Greeks should maintain their integrity and debate with Rome when Rome seems to be going against Greek law. He thinks they will respect Greece and abide by their treaty. Also, with the Achaean League he attacked Sparta and destroyed their constitution, making Sparta into little more than a tourist exhibit.

Polybius

Polybius was a Greek historian. He is a bit of an interesting character because he was involved with the Achaean league but also spent a great deal of time in Rome and was close with Scipio, so he has both a Greek and a Roman perspective. He wrote The Histories and was the first to attempt to write the whole world's history. He criticized other historians for not paying enough attention to Rome in their histories, but this is an unfair criticism because no one knew that Rome was going to become such a large power so quickly--and if they had lost the war with Carthage (as it seemed they would) they would not have risen to power. Polybius was very close to the Achaean League leader Philopoemen and even spoke at his funeral, and thus his accounts are heavily biased in Philopoemen's favor.

Pompey

Pompey was Roman but heavily involved in Hellenistic history. For one, when Ptolemy XII was kicked out of Alexandria and replaced on the throne by his daughter Berenike it was Pompey who restored him to his throne. He was also given unlimited power and authorized to go ANYWHERE to deal with the Cicilian pirates (although usually generals were given power for only one region). He was responsible for defeating Mithridates in the third Mithridatic War, although Mithridates killed himself before Pompey could reach him. He was engaged in a civil war with Julius Caesar, and after his loss at the Battle of Pharsalus he fled to Egypt and was killed by Ptolemy XIII.

Popillius Laenas

Laenas was a consult of the Roman Republic. Her would go around preaching about the glorious victory of Rome over Macedon. When the Egyptians appealed to Rome for help against the Seleucids in the Sixth Syrian War they sent Laenas. On the Day of Eleusis he warned Antiochus IV to retreat and drew a line around him in the sand and told him to make a decision before exiting the circle.

Ptolemy IV Philopator

Ptolemy IV was the first weak king of Egypt. He fought the Fourth Syrian War against Antiochus III. Even though Ptolemy won the Battle of Raphia, his reign is still seen as the turn of the Ptolemaic kingdom from strong to weak. He employed native Egyptians in the army, and Polybius thinks this is why the Egyptians of Upper Egypt revolted (although this is unlikely). And although he did recapture Coele-Syria in the battle the Seleucids later took it back.

Ptolemy V Epiphanes

Ptolemy V was only five when Ptolemy IV died, and many people tried to exploit his weakness. Agathocles and Sosibus murdered his mother Arsinoe to prevent her from ruling and then made an attempt to put Agathocles on the throne. This did not work, so Agathocles had Sosibus murdered but then was lynched by the Alexandrian mob himself. The regency was passed from one advisor to another and the Seleucids and Macedonians sought to take advantage of this turmoil. Antiochus III and Philip V made an alliance and launched the Fifth-Syrian War, wherein Antiochus reclaimed Coele-Syria. Ptolemy made a quick conclusion so he could focus on the home-front, so he agreed to let Antiochus keep Coele-Syria and he agreed to marry Antiochus' daughter.

Ptolemy VI Philometer

Ptolemy VI ruled as co-regent with his mother Cleopatra I for a time. He then married his sister Cleopatra II and under his advisor’s influence he made preparations to invade Coele-Syria. Before he invaded Coele Syria, however, his brother Ptolemy VIII was associated on the throne with Ptolemy VI and Cleopatra II. Coele-Syria was invaded but Antiochus IV soundly beat them. He was marching on Alexandria and would have entered if Rome had not turned him away on the Day of Eleusis. Rome then divided the Ptolemaic kingdom among the brothers, and Ptolemy VI got Egypt and Cyprus. He eventually died in battle against the pretender Alexander Balas.

Ptolemy VIII Physcon

Physcon is notorious for being a weak ruler, but one who ruled for a long time. In his first reign with his brother and sister (Ptolemy VI Philometor and Cleopatra II, married), Physcon ruled in Cyrene. Interestingly, he is the first ruler to will his kingdom to Rome, mostly so that his brother would not assassinate him. In his second reign, he rules with his sister (Cleopatra II, who was married to his brother), and her son (Ptolemy VII), whom he quickly killed. He then married Cleopatra III (his wife’s daughter) without divorcing Cleopatra II. He exiles all intellectuals from Alexandria in attempts to gain revenge on the city who had once betrayed him for his brother.

Ptolemy XII Auletes

Ptolemy XII was the father of the famous Cleopatra VII. The Egyptian people rose up against him and he fled to Rome and his eldest daughter Berenike ruled in his place. He bribed Caesar to endorse him as an "ally of the Roman people." He was eventually restored to the throne by Pompey, and upon his return to Egypt he immediately had Berenike killed. Ptolemy X had willed his kingdom to Rome, so Ptolemy XII had that will hanging over his head throughout his reign--Rome could decide at any moment that he was not a legitimate ruler and replace him.

publicani

The publicani were served as tax collectors in the Roman Republic and were equestrians. They would make bids to the Senate as to how much money they could raise in taxes, and the Senate would pick the highest bidder. In order to meet their quota they would practice extortion and get the money by any means possible. Corrupt senators (who technically were not supposed to be involved with business) would make deals with the publicani so they could both profit off the taxes. One of the few governors opposed to this practice was Rufus, so he cracked down on the publicani. The publicani were displeased and, ironically, accused him of extortion and he was found guilty by a jury of angry equestrians.

Rufus

Rufus was a Roman statesman. In contrast to many of the corrupt senators he was against extortion and tried to limit how much the publicani took from the people of Mytilene in taxes. In an ironic twist of fate, the angry publicani accused him of extortion when his year was up and he was found guilty by a jury of equestrians (publicani were equestrians). He was exiled but went to live in Mytilene, where he was welcomed with welcome arms (which strongly indicates he did not extort them)

Pydna

The Battle of Pydna was a battle fought between the Macedonians and Rome in the Third Macedonian War. One possible motivation for Rome entering the Third Macedonian War is that Persues had his brother Demetrius killed, and Demetrius had been a hostage at the Roman court and was well liked by the Romans. Rome won at the Battle of Pydna and captured Pydna, thus putting an end to the Antigonid Dynasty. They divided Macedon into four republics and had now captured all of Alexander's old territory.

Queen Teuta

Queen of Illyria. She took control after her husband King Agron died from alcohol poisoning while celebrating his victory over the Aetolians. Polybius is very critical of her and calls her “short-sighted,” but he also had no respect for women and is thus biased. She appears to have been a fairly strong and competent ruler, so Polybius was likely underestimating her strength and ambition. The Illyrians were piratical, so Rome eventually sent an envoy to Teuta to end the piracy. The envoy (characteristically) was rude, so Teuta responded by having the boy assassinated before he even left the country. Obviously this upset Rome, so they declared war (The First Illyrian War?), won, and replaced Teuta with Demetrius of Pharos.

Raphia

The Battle of Raphia was the final battle of the Fourth Syrian War. Ptolemy IV beat Antiochus III and kept Coele-Syria. But Polybius thinks that the Egyptians revolted against Ptolemy because he let them fight in the Battle of Raphia which caused a spike in nationalism. And the Seleucids later recaptured Coele-Syria anyways.

Sack of Corinth

The sack of Corinth happened during the Achaean War, which was fought between Rome and The Achaean League and their allies. The Romans led by Lucius Mummius invaded and killed all the men, sold the women and children into slavery, stole art, and burned the city. Polybius says Mummius was not usually so brutal, but he was influenced by the pressure from those around him. This period marks the beginning of Roman domination. Achaea did not become a province at this point, but the Greeks looked back on the sack of Corinth as the end of Greek freedom.

Scerdilaidas

Scerdilaidas replaced Demetrius of Pharos on the Illyrian throne after the Second Illyrian War. Rome ousted Demetrius because he broke their treaty and was engaging in piratical activity south of Lissus. But Sceridilaidas was not much better and also engaged in piracy.

Scipio Aemilianus

Scipio is the son of the principal general who defeated Macedon, Aemilius Paullus. But he was adopted by the Scipios and thus comes from two powerful Roman families. He and Polybius were very close and Polybius enjoyed a lot of privilege in Rome with Scipio. He famously embarrassed the incredibly overweight Physcon by making him walk through the streets of Alexandria.

Second Illyrian War

when Rome appointed Demetrius of Pharos as client king of Illyria after the First Illyrian War they told him his ships could not sail south of Lissus. Generally speaking, Rome is content to allow local power to govern itself so long as they maintain the treaty. However, Demetrius of Pharos broke his treaty with Rome and sailed south of Lissus while Rome was distracted by the Second Punic War with Carthage. By breaking the treaty Demetrius began a war with Rome--which Rome quickly won and Demetrius fled to Macedon and was replaced by Scerdilaidas.

Second Macedonian War

The Second Macedonian War was fought between Rome led by Flamininus and Macedon led by Philip V. Rhodes, Pergamum, and most of Greece ally themselves with Rome. After his victory at the Battle of Cynoscephalae Flaminius proclaimed the "freedom of the Greeks" at the Isthmian Games, although he did not declare freedom for the fetters of Greece. Philip V had to pay an indemnity of 1000 talents, remove his garrisons, let Roman prisoners go, and send his son as a a hostage to Rome.

Second Punic War

The Second Punic war was the second major war between Carthage and the Roman Republic. Carthage and Macedon made an alliance (on paper only) which may have been why Rome nominally became involved briefly during the Punic War with the First Macedonian War. Rome very nearly lost the Second Punic War, and if Hannibal had gone directly to Rome after Lake Trasimene the republic likely would have fallen. The Battle of Cannae in the Second Punic war was one of Rome's worst defeats in history. To everyone's surprise, however, the Romans won the war.

Septuagint

translation of the Torah into Koine Greek. It was legendarily translated by 72 scholars (6 scribes from each of the 12 tribes according to the Letter of Aristeas). The traditional story is that Ptolemy II sponsored the translation for use by the many Alexandrian Jews who were fluent in Koine Greek but not Hebrew and also for the Library of Alexandria.

Sixth Syrian War

The Sixth Syrian War was between Antiochus IV and the Ptolemaic Kingdom. Antiochus attacked first and captured Memphis. Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra II were declared co-rulers in an attempt to stabilize the kingdom. Antiochus took Ptolemy VI under his guardianship (he was Antiochus' nephew) and effectively gave him control of Egypt. The Alexandrian people were unhappy and declared Physcon sole king. Antiochus besieged Alexandria but was forced to retreat. Then the brothers reconciled and Antiochus invaded again in an attempt to regain control over the kings. He was turned away on the Day of Eleusis.

Theocritus

a scholar poet best known for his pastoral poetry, which offers an idealized view of rural life and shepherds. Although he was probably not the first to write pastoral poetry, his is the oldest surviving work. He influenced later poets, particularly Milton and Spenser. He wrote his pastoral poems in Doric Greek rather than Attic Greek, which was generally considered a more literary language. Some possible explanations for this are that he thought Doric was more appropriate for a rural poem since it was considered a “lesser” language (kind of a hick/redneck language) and he was trying to separate rural life from Athens (which used Attic). Also, Doric was his native language. Following his example, all later pastoral poetry was written in Doric. Not all of his work was pastoral, however. He also wrote about city life, politics, and festivals and wrote about real life (mimesis) in the court setting of Ptolemy II and Arsinoe II. Like all 3rd century poets he lived in Alexandria for a time.

Third Macedonian War

Macedon vs. Rome. Perseus took the throne in 179 BC (after the death of his brother and his father), and was accused by the Romans of meddling in Greek affairs by making alliances with various Greek city-states. Also, the Romans were possibly mad at him for having his brother killed. Battle of Pydna was fought in southeastern Macedonia on June 22, 168 BC, and the Roman army was led by L. Aemilius Paullus. Macedon's defeat led to Rome dividing Macedonia into several (four) republics, which only led to more internal turmoil between the republics.

Flamininus

Led the Romans in the Achaean war against Macedon and Philip V. He won and declared "freedom of the Greeks" at the Isthmian Games. 1000 talent war indemnity, removal of garrison, releasing Roman prisoners, took Philip V's son Demetrius hostage. Declared freedom of Greek cities but NOT the fetters of Greece.

War with Antiochus

Rome fought a war with Antiochus III. Rome was allied with Achaean League, Philip V, Rhodes, and Eumenes II of Pergamum. Antiochus had no allies, as both Aetolia and Ptolemy V abandoned him when it looked like he was losing. Rome's reasons for getting into the war are unclear. Maybe they were responding to Pergamum's complaints about Antiochus, or maybe they were mad Antiochus let Hannibal into his court. Rome won and the Treaty of Apamea dealt a huge blow to the Seleucids. They had to retreat from Asia Minor as far as the Taurus, Pergamum got a lot of their territory, he had to send his son as a hostage to Rome, and they were bankrupt by paying an indemnity of 15,000 talents.