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78 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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How do we classify a preterm birth? |
Weight at birth of less than 2,500 grams (5.5 pounds) |
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How do we classify a premature birth? |
Less than 37 completed weeks |
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Who is the father of modern medicine? |
Hippocrates is the father of modern medicine - Believed that "health depends on a state of equilibrium among the various internal factors...equilibrium reached when man lives in harmony with his environment" - Humoral theory--Equilibrium in the 4 bodily fluids (blood, yellow and black bile, and phlegm) --> Mixture of these are balanced means we're healthy |
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What three health enhancing factors did Hippocrates believe was important? |
Believed that healthy diet, exercise, and sleep were extremely important! - Emotions and thoughts were just as important as the physical symptoms |
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Time period with the least amount of scientific advances |
Late Middle ages (medieval Christian Church was in power) |
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Name of the bacterium that caused the Black Death |
Yersina Pestis (carried by fleas that lived on rats, then spread from person to person) 3 varieties: 1. Bubonic (most common)-- Infection in the lymph node 2. Pneumonic plague--Infection of the lungs 3. Septicemic plague--an infection of the blood |
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Philosopher/mathematician's work on the human body rejected the notion that the mind influenced the body (paved the way for the concept of mind body dualism) |
Rene Descartes - Human body as a machine. A person falls ill when the machine breaks down - Described all the reflexes of the body - Body could communicate via the pineal gland |
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Dominant Medical Model today |
Biomedical model - Disease is a result of a pathogen - Chronic diseases--cancer, heart disease, stroke etc. - Based on the mind-body dualism *fails to explain the role of psychological and behavioral factors in health or illness* |
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Which model do Health Psychologists use? |
Biopsychosocial - Culture, family, country, environments and our beliefs influence our behaviors - Society influences mind and behavior |
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Do genetic tests give an estimated risk or accurate risk? |
Estimated risk. Having a genetic variant doesn't necessarily mean that a particular trait will develop. |
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Morbidity, mortality, incidence and prevalence (DEFINITIONS) |
- Morbidity: Number of cases of unfavorable health outcomes - Mortality: Number of deaths due to a specific cause - Incidence: Number of new cases of a specific disease in a specific region at a given time period - Prevalence: Total number of diagnosed cases divided by total population |
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Levels of a disease |
Endemic: Constant pressure and/or usual prevalence of a disease or infectious agent in a population within a geographic area Epidemic: Increase, often sudden, in the number of cases of a disease above what is normally expected in that population in that area Outbreak: Carries the same definition of epidemic, but is often used for a more limited geographic area Pandemics: Refers to an epidemic that has spread over several countries or continents, usually affecting a large number of people |
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Prospective and retrospective research |
Retrospective studies: - Case control studies - Compare a group who has the disease to those who do not - Review of records - (i.e., identifying risk factors that lead to AIDS) Prospective studies: - Healthy individuals observed over time to test if given condition (i.e., sedentary lifestyle) is related to later outcomes |
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How do health psychologists infer the causality of a disease? |
- Evidence must be consistent (replication must produce the same result) - The alleged cause must be in place before the disease actually appeared (i.e., Stressful diagnosis leads folks to start drinking. Drinking did not cause the diagnosis) - Relationship must make sense (consistent with psychological explanations?) - There must be a dose-response relationship between the risk factors and health outcome (i.e., morbidity rate of breast cancer is highest for women who drink, less for moderate drinkers and lowest for those who don't drink) - Strength of the association between the alleged cause and the health outcome must suggest causality - Relative risk = incidence of a health condition in a group exposed risk factor to the incidence of a health condition in a group not exposed to the risk factor (i.e., relative risk of 2.0-->exposed group is 2x as likely to develop health outcome) - The incidence or prevalence of the disease MUST drop when the alleged factor is removed (i.e., when women reduce the amount of alcohol consumed, their risk of breast cancer has to drop) |
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Identifying the mediator |
The mediator is expected to be a "conductor" or pathway on the effect of the IV on the DV - Mediation implies that the IV affects the mediator, and then the mediator affects the DV - Mediator = coping, because it explains the outcome (stress-->depression) |
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Identifying the Moderator |
Refers to the examination of the statistical interaction between 2 IV's predicting the DV - Of the IVs, at least one variable should be a continuous variable - If both IVs are continuous, one of them can be converted to a categorical variable |
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What are genes? |
Genes are information bytes in the DNA - A single gene can be as long as 100 DNA bases or several million - Each gene encodes a unique protein - Each protein has a special function in the cell (i.e., antibodies, enzymes, hemoglobin, etc.) - There are approximately 20,500 genes in the human genome |
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What are alleles? |
Different forms of the same gene are called alleles - We inherit one allele from each parent for the same gene (i.e., Sickle cell anemia: body makes sickle shaped RBC; folks with Sickle cell anmenia have abnormal hemoglobin structures coded for by the allele--> less O2 carried; recessive inheritance ss--> sickle cell anemia - Those who have Ss and ss are resistant to malaria |
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Epigenetics |
Epigenetics term coined by Conrad Waddington DEFINITION: Reversible regulation of gene expression (can silence or express genes), occurring independently of DNA sequencing (do not change the sequence of the DNA strand), mediated principally through changes in DNA methylation and chromatin structure - DNA and histones have another layer around them called the Epigenome - Epigenome consists of chemic tags (CH3) on the DNA and histones - Epigenome "layer" with its tags has information which regulates the genomic functioning - Epigenetics marks alteration of the sequence of the DNA
Epigenome influences DNA via DNA methylations |
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Methyl Tags |
Stop interaction. You add these to understand the structure of DNA |
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Epigenetic Inheritance |
Researchers used to think that an embryo's epigenome is erased and environmental influences (prenatal environment) rebuild it from scratch - Recent studies indicate that some epigenetic tags are passed from one generation to the next (i.e., plant and animal studies; human? This is more difficult to prove) Researchers have to also consider: - If the epigenetic variation was present before overt signs of disease - If it is inherited, it will be present in all tissues-transgenerational epigenetic inheritance - Or it could be limited to a few tissue cells if it were to happen postnatally and is disease specific |
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Epigenetics in the embryo |
The epigenome is also responsible for X chromosome inactivation in female mammals - Females have two copies of every x-linked gene, so one copy is randomly inactivated or turned off - During the embryonic stages, in each cell, one x chromosome is permanently inactivated, however a small portion at the ends of this chromosome escapes inactivation Any defects in genes on the x chromosome are often apparent in males because they have one X chromosome and therefore only one copy is expressed Epigenetics effects are observed throughout our lives |
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Established DNA methylation patterns |
They are extremely important for normal development |
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When do epigenetic influences begin? Are they observed throughout our lives? |
Epigenetic influences begins in the womb - (i.e.) What a pregnant mother eats, drinks, and inhales, influences her unborn child's epigenome and long term health - Effects are observed throughout our lives |
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When mother rats lick their rat pups, what pathway do they trigger that enables these pups to cope better with stress? |
Rat mothers who lick their pups after birth compared to those who do not, trigger those epigenetic silencing markets to be removed--> GR - When rats are born, the GR gene is silenced - Those who are licked and handled show an increase in GR receptors (reduction in HPA response to challenges) |
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Mother's who report high daily hassles, anxiety, and stress tend to have babies with which physiological, epigenetic (only remember GR receptor gene) and behavioral outcome? |
Babies exposed to maternal stress show elevated DNA methylation in NR3C1 gene (glucocorticoid receptor gene) - At 3 months old, these babies showed higher cortisol levels to stress - If mothers have an unhealthy diet during pregnancy tended to have children who are more prone to obesity and cardiovascular diseases |
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Children who had experienced abuse are at a high risk for which behavioral and emotional outcomes? |
- Obesity, heart disease, and cancer - Psychiatric conditions such as depression, suicide, drug and alcohol abuse, and violence - Also at risk for developing PTSD |
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Does the timing of trauma determine the epigenetic effects? |
Timing of trauma influences different epigenetic effects -->Younger = more vulnerable Suicide victims with a history of child abuse show increased methylation and decreased GR expression in their hippocampus - Other studies indicate that folks who suffer from PTSD with a history of child abuse have different epigenetic markers than folks who suffer from PTSD but did not have a history of abuse |
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Are epigenetic effects transmitted via sperms? |
Yes, epigenetic markers are transmitted through multiple generations through both sperms and eggs. |
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Are epigenetic reversible? |
YES! Dietary supplements and pharmaceutical therapy could reverse environmentally induced epigenetic changes EXAMPLE: Chronic alcohol consumption - Observed to change epigenetic patterns by modifying B-vitamin availability and the wastage of choline (associated with liver damage, atherosclerosis, muscle damage) - EGCG, primary polyphenol found in green tea, observed to reduce DNA methylation in cancer cell lines |
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Main purpose of the blood brain barrier |
Brain is protected from the harmful changes in the blood by the BBB - Maintain the environment of the brain within parameters Astrocyte cell walls and the blood vessel wall, form the BBB (defusing bad things getting into the blood stream In brain capillaries, cells are joined by tight junctions, which prevent material from passing between cells Highly lipophilic substances (ethanol, nicotine) enter the brain by directly crossing the membrane - Water crosses by simple diffusion and so do very small molecules (highly regulated) - Most nutrients cross via facilitated diffusion (glucose = primary energy substrate of the brain) |
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Which glial cells are involved in the formation of the Blood Brain Barrier? |
ASTROCYTES - Provides a framework for young neurons - Form part of the BBB - Regulation of blood flow in the cerebral micro circulation -Release glutamate (excitatory neurotransmitter) Excess glutamate can kill neurons - Possible role in stimulating neurons to form new synapses (role in learning and memory) - Transport nutrients to neurons |
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What types of substances can directly cross the BBB? |
Anything that is Lipophilic can cross through the BBB! (i.e., ethanol and nicotine) |
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Primary energy source for the brain |
Glucose. The brain can't store glucose so needs a constant supply (i.e., when under starvation, brain breaks down protein for energy) |
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Reticular formation |
Found in the midline of the upper medulla - Plays a role in maintaining attention, arousal, consciousness, movement, and becomes fully myelinated at or after puberty |
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Which area of the brain is affected by alcohol first? |
The cerebellum - Helps coordinate voluntary movement, balance, and posture - Damage leads to loss of muscle tone, tremors etc. - Coordinates with forebrain - Recent studies indicate that some of the specialized parts involved in memory, language, cognition, and attention |
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Broca's and Wernicke's area |
Broca's: Becomes active around age 2 (2-2 1/2); Involves speech control Wernicke's area: Comes online around 12 months; involves language comprehension |
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Functions of the amygdala |
Contains several subdivision with diverse functions - Emotion regulation, sexual arousal, aggression, fear, pain - Identifying potential threats in the environment |
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Most brain tumors grow from which cells? Neurons or glial cells? |
Glial cells - Early symptoms of brain tumors are due to the pressure buildup on the surrounding brain structures
Symptoms: Constant headaches, vomiting, mental dullness, changes in sensory and motor ability, seizures) |
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Primary neurotransmitter in the neuromuscular junction |
ACH - Neurons that use Ach are called cholinergic neurons Nicotinic receptors: responds to both Ach and nicotine = found in neuromuscular junction |
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Monomines, what are the two? |
Catecholamines (dopamine-DA, norepinephrine-NE, epinephrine-Epi) - Dopamine: Motivating behaviors and processing rewards Indoleamines (seratonin-5HT, melatonin) |
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Where do we find most of the serotonin in our body? |
95% of the serotonin in body released by the enteric nervous system - Most serotonergic neurons in brain located in the raphe nuclei in brain - Associated with regulation of mood, emotional behavior and sleep |
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Prostaglandins |
- These are also called tissue hormones - Found in a wide variety of tissues, these are extremely powerful substances - Do not meet typical definition of a hormone - Play an important role in communication and in the control of many body functions - Travel a short distance to act on neighboring cells |
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Bacterium implicated in peptic ulcers |
Helicobactor pylori - Stress causes ulcers (reports of high stress) |
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What are antigens? |
Protein molecules embedded on microorganisms that trigger an immune response - Antigens can penetrate the body through skin, digestive tract, respiratory tract, and urinary tract |
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How does breast milk influence a baby's immune system? |
After birth, mothers influence baby's immune system through breastfeeding - Maternal antibodies (IgG and IgA) bind to the antigen and prevent them from harming the body - Immune cells - Antiviral factors provide passive (provided for by mother) immunity to offspring Breast fed babies also have a higher % of Lactobacillus bifidus |
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What is the key feature of the non specific or innate immune response? |
Fights off antigens, even those never seen before - Launch an attack in a short period of time - Have toll-like-receptors (TLRs) which broadly identify bacteria, virus, fungi etc. --> Pac Man! (phagocytes such as macrophages or microglia) |
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Natural Killer Cells |
- Smaller lymphocytes/sub group of white blood cells - They lack antigen specific cell surface receptors - Recent research indicates these cells can distinguish normal "self" cells from cancerous cells - Injects cells with a lethal chemical. Not phagocytic - Also secretes interferon, which prevents viruses from replicating - Can function as memory cells - Also produce cytokines (Tumor necrosis factor-alpha) |
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Neutrophils and Macrophages are which type of cells, and what is their function? |
Phagocytes - Neutrophils ingests and digests microorganisms (antibodies that bind to antigens help flag macrophages to the presence of foreign material) - Macrophages also act as antigen-presenting cells (after macrophages ingest an antigen, they display some of the antigen on their cell surface) -->antigen-presenting cells are attacked by other specific immune cells |
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What are compliment proteins |
- A group of protein enzymes - Recall how the antibody binds with the antigen and exposes a re called the compliment binding site - These sites trigger the compliment proteins which bore holes in the enemy cell, allowing water and sodium to diffuse in--> cell bursts |
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What is the specific immune system and when is it triggered into action? |
Involves memory cells and ability to recognize and respond to harmful substances - Antigen has to have been encountered for the specific immune system to be activated Produced in the bone marrow 3 types: - B Lymphocytes - T-lymphocytes (T-helper and cytotoxic cells) The hormone thymosin (from thymus) controls the development of the lymphocytes |
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What are B-cells and how do they ensure they recognize subsequent attacks from antigens? |
As they mature, numerous molecules of a specific antibody is inserted into their cytoplasm membrane - Once they mature and come into contact with an antigen that fits their antibody, they lock onto the enemy cell PRIMARY RESPONSE: - B cells start dividing into plasma cells (which produce more antibodies) AND memory cells which can last a lifetime SECONDARY RESPONSE: - When antigen is encountered again -Memory cells release antibodies |
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What are the three types of t-cells and what do they do? |
T-cells have undergone the first stage of development in the thymus gland - Migrate mainly to lymph nodes - Embedded in each cell is a protein molecule that fits only on a specific antigen 1. T-Cytoxic cells - Lock and key method-therefore identifies cell that are infected or cancer cells - Injects cells infected with antigen with a lethal toxin 2. T-Helper cells - Helper cells are sentries-when they locate antigens they signal the B cells, phagocytes, macrophages, and cytoxic t-cells by releasing a chemical into the area around the enemy cells 3. T suppressor/Regulatory T-cells - Alerts T and B cells when invader has been destroyed - Regulate the immune response by secreting chemicals that suppress the immune system after invader is destroyed. |
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How does the nervous system and the immune system talk to each other? |
Pathway 1: When antigens invade our body, a molecule called interleukin-1 (IL-1) which is a cytokine is released - Cytokines are produced by macrophages -->IL-1 triggers the activation of the HPA system in the hypothalamus, causing a stress response Pathway 2: - During instances of stress, the SNS is activated - SNS triggers the release of E and NE-increases our HR - Recall that the receptors for E and NE are called alpha and beta adrenocreceptors - Nearly all lymphocytes/white blood cells and NK cells have adrenoreceptors - Thus, E and NE have an influence on lymphatic cell circulation |
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How are Cytokines produced? |
Produced by Macrophages |
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SAM (sympatho-adrenal medullary Pathway) |
SAM is the first response to stress. Sympathetic nervous system is activated when the amygdala detects a threat. - The sympathetic neurons trigger cells in the adrenal medulla to secrete epinephrine/adrenalin (Ep) and some Norepinephrine (NE) - In heart-->increase in HR = fast response to stress (acts within seconds) - In the brain, NE produced by the locus coeruleus, and when under stress, it increases vigilance, attention, arousal, and also activates the HPA system |
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Role of Epi and NE during a stress response |
- Increase heart rate - Vasodilation in muscles - Constriction of blood vessels in the skin (thus ensures and adequate blood supply to the brain and muscles) - Epi triggers glycogenolysis (break down of glycogen into sugar) in the liver, which increases levels of glucose in the blood. |
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HPA (Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenocortical (HPA) system |
- Delayed response to stress - HPA activated by messages from the CNS to the hypothalamus - Recall that the hypothalamus plays a major role in coordinating activity of endocrine and immune system, direct control of stress, reacts to actual events or memories Hypothalamus secretes CRH (corticotrophin releasing hormone) - CRH travels to the Anterior pituitary and stimulates production of ACTH by the pituitary gland - ACTH activates the adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids GC (main hormone in humans is cortisol) |
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Role of Glucocorticoids (GC) |
Regulates the amount of glucose in the blood - In babies, GC critical for brain and lung development - Peak GC levels take approx. 20-30 min after initial stress response |
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What are the 2 GC receptors |
Mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) Glucocorticoid Receptor (GR) |
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GC has higher affinity to which receptor? |
MR - Due to high affinity, 80-90% of the MRs are occupied when GC's are in basal range |
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When does the GR become occupied? |
GR become occupied only when stressors increase GCs and right after waking up when GC levels are high (GRs mediate stress effects of GCs) |
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Feedback look for an acute stress response |
- Cortisol acts back on the hippocampus, hypothalamus and the amygdala (Hipp. has a high density of glucocorticoid receptors GR) - Hippocampus signals the hypothalamus - Hypothalamus signals pituitary to suppress production of CRH and ACTH - When production of ACTH decreases, adrenal cortex shuts down production of cortisol/GC |
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What are cytokines? Which immune cells release this chemical? |
Immune cells "communicate" via cytokines - Cytokines signal the brain to produce the sickness behavior and fever Cytokines are released by macrophages and lymphocytes when the body is under an immunological threat. - Too large to cross the BBB |
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What are the short term and long term effects of stress? |
Short term: Observed to have a positive effect--> increase in immune response - Nonspecific immune system is activated Long term: negative effect--> immunosuppression - Psychological stress has been associated with an increase in the susceptibility to infections (Depends on type of stress and the coping style of the individual) |
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How does short term stress enhance our immune functioning? |
During acute stress (Eustress-short term immuno-preparation condition) - Few minutes, or mild short term stress such as public speaking, exam or during exercise = SAM activated - Increase in blood granulocytes and NK cells If the stress response continues for a longer duration, HPA system gets activated - Release of GCs - Decrease in blood leucocytes Glucocorticoids kill off a particular subset of lymphocytes - Acute stressors observed to upregulate the natural immunity - Short term stress protects the body from infection |
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What immune cell activity do we observe in the blood of those suffering from long term stress? |
- Low levels of NK cells - Decrease T-cells - Become more susceptible to infection |
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What is the direct effect hypothesis? |
Chronic stress decreases number of immune cells in circulation-->more susceptible to infection |
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What is the indirect hypothesis? |
Immunosuppression is an after effect of the stress response - Stress may encourage maladaptive behavior that disrupt immune functioning (i.e., smoking, alcohol, drug abuse, etc.) |
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What is the glucocorticoid resistance model? |
Excessive inflammation could be due to a malfunction in the glucocorticoid system (no longer able to reduce inflammation) - Lower than normal levels of the hormone and/or immune cells less responsive to glucocorticoids thus increasing inflammation |
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How does the fetus regulate the cortisol in its body? |
When a pregnant mom experiences stress, there is an elevation of plasma ACTH, GC, and Catehoalmines (NE and EP) - These endogenous chemicals influences the developing fetus (activation of the fetal SNS) Prenatal maternal stress, epinephrine levels in the mother leads to: - Vasoconstriction in the placenta leading to fetal hypoxia - Prenatal birth and low birth weight |
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How does the quality of caregiving influence a baby's HPA system? |
Quality of caregiving influences amount of cortisol in babies and toddlers - Caregivers who show sensitive behaviors (responds promptly and appropriately, reads cues correctly) have babies who show little to no response to stressful situations |
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Symptoms of depression |
- Persistent sad, anxious or "empty" mood - Feelings of hopelessness, pessimism - Feelings of guilt, worthlessness, helplessness - Increased fatigue etc. |
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Transactional model of stress |
- Process of stress is triggered when a stressor exceeds the personal and social resources a person can mobilize to cope with the stressor - Two people can perceive the same stressor differently depending on the resources that have and their coping ability - Response to stress involves continuous interactions and adjustments between the environment and the person called transactions - Transactions between the people and environment driven by cognitive appraisals (if a person knows how to seek out resources, stressor will change) |
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Diathesis stress model |
Diathesis = vulnerability (i.e., behavioral/temperamental, highly physiological, genetic) - These individuals are more likely to be affected adversely by an environmental factor 2 factors that determine an individual's susceptibility to stress and illness 1. Predisposing factors (establish a person's vulnerability) 2. Precipitating factors (from environment like lack of support, multiple stressors, lack of resources) |
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Components of vulnerability for PTSD |
Pre-existing psychological vulnerability Emotion regulation - Coping and modulating negative emotions - Ability to modulate affect and cope when the trauma occurs |
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PTSD symptom clusters |
Attachment style - Those with insecure types observed at higher risk - Insecure anxious = most susceptible |
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PTSD Biological Factors |
- Overly sensitive amygdala, hippocampus, medial prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate gyrus - Amygdala-hyper responsive (folks with PTSD report constant hypervigilance) -- Decreased hippocampal volume - Lower levels of cortisol/GC - Those who experienced abuse and neglect |
