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331 Cards in this Set

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What is the role of a veterinarian in swine production?
Improve production: sow productivity (piglets/sow/yr) & grow/finish productivity (ADG, F/G)

= Preventative medicine
What are some of the components of the role of a vet in the preventative medicine in swine production?
- Prevention of disease is key
- ID risk factors
- Elimination of common dz
- Looking at the group
- Vaccine protocols
- Biosecurity
- Bench marking (compare to industry average)
- Data management
What components to do you want to consider for Herd Health?
- Look at production data prior to inspection
- ID problem areas
- Walk thru production cycle
- Youngest to oldest
T/F Hog inventories have been increasing in the past 3 years.
False, declining
What factors are contributing to the decline in hog numbers and loss of income for the producer?
- High feed costs
- Low slaughter price
- high Cdn $
- Country of Origin Labeling (Cool)
What is happening to hog numbers?
Numbers of hogs on farm is decreasing, decreasing exports, decreased hogs sent to slaughter, decreased sows and gilts.
What country has the most pigs?
China

(EU-2, USA-3)
How much does Canada contribute to hog exports?
20%
What is the largest expense incurred by the hog producer?
Feed.
Why is feed so expensive?
- Influence of worldwide markets
- Competition w/ human consumption & other livestock & energy
What are the main feed components?
CHO (Corn (#1) & grain)
Protein (Soybeans (#1), canola, meat meal)
What is feed conversion and what is it like for pigs?
Kg of feed required to make 1 kg of live animal. (Pigs 2.5)
What factors affect feed conversion?
- diet quality
- the closer to meeting the animals needs the better (excess energy turns into fat and excess pr- is denitrified and excreted)
The ideal energy to protein balance is based on...?
Age of pig
Genetic make-up
Protein as AA balance
What factors affect feed conversion?
- Dz (feed is diverted to fight dz, immune response, poor absorbtion, pr- losing enteropathy)
- Feed wastage/spillage
- Spoiled feed
- Contamination (mycotoxins, weed seeds)
What is the largest fixed cost in swine production?
Housing
Why do you want to house a large number of pigs?
Helps pay down the cost of housing.
What is the net overall productivity measurement?
Pigs/sow/year
T/F Growth rate and stocking density are inversely proportional.
True
Where is the price of pork set?
Chicago
What does one consider with respect to "Index" in swine?
Lean yeild, mm of backfat, mm of loin eye depth, measure on each pig at slaughter
What are the 4 components that are causing swine farmers to a lower cost of production?
1) Economy of scale - larger farms can spread the cost over more pigs
2) Vertical ownership/coordination Standardization
3) Mechanization
4) Innovation and Technology
How has technology affected swine fertility?
Continual genetic advancement
Artificial insemination (spread genetics very quickly)
What other technology factors are affecting swine production?
- Abx growth promotion/prohylaxis
- Synthetic amino acid supplementation
- Nutrition balancing
- Genetics
- Repartitioning agents (Promotes lean growth, more efficient because sends blood to muscle. e.g. Ractopamin)
What are the components of "Modern Pork?"
- Lean
- Price competitively
- Centrally processed
- Retail ready packaging
- Moisture enhanced
What is the future of animal agriculture?
- Marketing contracts increasingly replace open markets and relationship among stakeholders in livestock production
- reduce the availability of market info needed for efficient price discovery
- more conducive to larger operations
- Trent to fewer and larger livestock - economies of scale in production and processing will drive the design of new and existing facilities
Who is the largest hog producer?
Smithfield foods (12 million hogs - 3.5x the nearest competitor) - committed to vertical integration to ensure a steady supply of raw materials and tame industry cycles.

Goes from hog raising to pork processing so the company can exercise complete control over its products from their genetic lines.
How can a small producer possibly gain a higher revenue?
Niche markets/value-added products. Consumer pay high premium for differentiated products to offset the increased cost of producing, processing and distributing in small quantities.
What has lead consumers to more consumption of prepared foods and food away from home?
Rising income, changing lifestyles, urbanization
What is the length of sow gestation?
3 mo, 3 week, 3 days (115days)
What is the conception rate of sows?
95%
Why do you not want to breed too many sows?
- Not enough room in the farrowing room --> early weaning
Why do you want to avoid not breeding enough sows?
Creates gap in the production cycle leading to loss of potential income and it is a difficult problem to correct once it happens.
How long is the sows estrus cycle?
21 days
What does lactation do to the estrus cycle?
Inhibits estrus therefore sows will not return to estrus until weaning
What are the influences on weaning to estrus length?
1) length of lactation
2) parity
3) season
4) nutritional
What is the normal weaning to estrus interval?
4-7 days
How many follicles typically form on each ovary during estrus?
6-10 follicles
How long after the onset of estrus does ovulation typically occur? Why is this important?
40 hours... 2/3 through estrus

Timing of AI
What factors can influence the number of ova shed/ovulation rate?
1) Flushing (increased energy levels prior to estrus)
2) White breeds have higher ovulation rate (e.g. york or landrace). Crossbreeding can generally ovulate more than either parent breeds.
How long is estrus in gilts? Sows?
Gilts: 38 hours
Sows: 53 hours
What are some of the signs of estrus?
- red, swollen vulva
- mucus discharge
- nervous restless behav
- increased vocalization
- decrease appetite
- elevation of ears, locking knees and elevating the back (LORDOSIS)
What is the most important component of any breeding program?
Proper Estrus detection
What is one of the most accurate wasys to detect a female in estrus?
Boar/back pressure test

Boar method is 100%
You should facilitate housing with boar exposure but why would you want to restrict nose-nose contact?
Leads to habituation
T/F the more frequently estrus detection is done, the better the chances are of inseminating at the correct time.
True
What kind of boar is best for estrus detection?
Old smelly boar that produces lots of saliva. Nose to nose contact is essential because the phermone that initiates the standing reflex is in the saliva.
How long will the female typically hold the standing relfex before she fatigues?
5-10 min.
What is the goal of the manger with respect to reproduction?
Devise an estrus detection and insemination program that will provide an adequate number of viable sperm near the site of ovulation 6-10 hours prior to ovulation.
How long can sperm remain viable in the repro tract? What about eggs?
24 hours, though gradual loss with time.

Eggs- 6 hours
If a sow is in estrus 3-4 days Post-weaning, how long should you wait to inseminate the first time and then the second time?

What about 5 days PW?
What about 6-7 days PW?
3-4 days: 24 hrs and then 12 hours later

5 days: 12 hrs and then 12 hour later

6-7 days: inseminate immediately, then 12 hour later
If 1x/day estrus detections are preformed, when should the show be inseminated?
Immediately then 12 hour later.
What are the 2 types of natural mating?
1) Pen mating
2) Supervised mating/"hand" mating
What is double mating?
A common practice on farm, generally breeding a sow on the first and second day she is in standing hear usually to two different boars to increase litter size.
What is the boar power for a young boar vs a mature boar?
Young boar: 2-3 mating/week

Mature boar: 2times/day or 10 matings/wk
What is the boar power when using AI?
1 boar: 200 sows
What is the main reason for the emergence of AI as the breeding method of choice?
Increase in heard size. AI reduces the number of boars required and time required to service.
What is the most common method for semen collection?
Gloved hand technique. Pressure on the glans penis is primary stimulus for erection and ejaculation
What should you look for when evaluating the semen?
Creamy white, no blood
Motility (70-90%)
Morphology
Free of lepto, parvo, PRRSV, etc
What is the average concentration of sperm?
20-100 billion/ejaculate
How much sperm per dose do you need to obtain max conception rate & litter size?
80-100ml
How long should the semen be free of bacterial contamination after extension?
48 hours
T/F Frozen semen is common in swine.
False
Why is extender used?
Allows multiple inseminations/ejaculate to stabilize membranes, reduce metabolic rate, energy source, pH buffering, ions for membrane and cell balance and abx
What should the temp be for semen storage
Not less than 15 C and no more than 18C
What is the most common type of insemination catheter?
Foam tip - inserted into first ring of cervix and allow female to draw in semen
How long does implantation take after fertilization?
8-18 days
When is the fertilized ova stable after mating?
28 days
When do you want to mix the sows after mating? Why?
<8 days or >28 days because you don't want to stress them and have the cortisol destroy the CL
What hormonal negative feedback is removed at weaning?
Prolactin - decreased and allows LH surge so can cycle back quickly.
What is P.G. 600 and how is it used?
A follicular growth enhancer that will hasten the onset of estrus in weaned sows and non-cycling gilts. Will mimic FSH and LH so that the sows will return to estrus w/in 5 days of treatment and can then be inseminated.
Why would you use PG 600 and Lutalyse?
To lyse the CL and remove negative effects of progesteron on milk production and then stimulate follicular growth.
What is regumate?
Top dress progestin to inhibit follicle maturation and estrus and CL will regress. Onces removed follicles mature, estrus will follow in 3-7 days. Not typically recommended to sows after weaning
What are 5 different methods of pregnancy dx?
1) Return to estrus in 18-22 days (common but not successful on large farms)
2) Hormone assays (progesterone and estrone sulfate indicate pregnancy - not commonly used)
3) A-mode ultrasound - v. common. Detection of fluid filled uterus at 30-75 days by beep or light.
4) Doppler - detection of moving fluid
5) RT ultrasound - has results in a big decrease in non productive sow days because you can breed them back. Can visualize fluid filled uterus at 18-21 days abdominally or rectally.
What are the goals of gilt management?
- Early and predicatable puberty (~180 days)
- Successful breeding
- Large litter size
- Good mothers
What can be said about gilts that don't enter estrus by 180 days?
Less productive over their lifetime
What percentage of the herd is gilts?
20%
What is the most important factor to stimulate a gilt to begin cycling?
Presence of a boar (15 min direct nose to nose contact will induce puberty in gilts 160 days of age)
What factors can affect onset of puberty in gilts?
1) Breed (Yorkshire and landrace reach puberty earleir)
2) Season (July, August, September -more difficult to stimulate to cycle)
3) Housing - space is important for expression of heat and to ensure sufficient access to feed and water
4) Nutrition: feed levels below 85% of ad like feed intake can delay
Why is genetic selection important?
- Decrease cost of production (genetic improvement of economically important traits)

- Selection decisions are based on individual estimated breeding values
What is the performance of any animal determined by?
- Genetics
- Environment (management) - can affect performance as much or more so than geneteics
What is the key to genetic improvement?
To distinguish b/w genetic and environmental factors that influence performance and select only those animals which are genetically superior.
How is the breeding value of an animal estimated?
Phenotypes of the animal +/- relatives through performance records
What is an EBV?
Estimated Breeding Value: an estimation of the genetic value of an animal compared to the average measured. An effective selection tool. Individuals with the best EBV for a given trait have the highest probability of producing superior progeny for that trait.
Why is genetic selection important?
- Decrease cost of production (genetic improvement of economically important traits)

- Selection decisions are based on individual estimated breeding values
What is the performance of any animal determined by?
- Genetics
- Environment (management) - can affect performance as much or more so than geneteics
What is the key to genetic improvement?
To distinguish b/w genetic and environmental factors that influence performance and select only those animals which are genetically superior.
How is the breeding value of an animal estimated?
Phenotypes of the animal +/- relatives through performance records
What is an EBV?
Estimated Breeding Value: an estimation of the genetic value of an animal compared to the average measured. An effective selection tool. Individuals with the best EBV for a given trait have the highest probability of producing superior progeny for that trait.
What does EBV take into account?
1) Heritability of the trait
2) Amount of information available on each boar or sow (i.e. # of relatives, progeny, number of litters number of herds (repeatability))
The _______ regression formula is used to calculate the EBV using all of the available info.
Best Linear Unbiased Prediction.
What does the EBV formula include?
Maternal EBV: litter size, back fat, growth rate,

Sire EBV: back fat, growth rate, lean deposition
What are some of the genetic defects of swine?
- Inguinal hernia
- Umbilical hernia
- Porcine stress syndome gene/ Pale Soft Exudative pork
- Poor conformation
If you wand to select a replacement gilt or boar, should you select them from a litter containing pigs with inguinal hernias?
No. Inguinal hernia are from Recessive gene
What is the pathophysiology of Porcine Stress Syndrome?
- Inappropriate and excessive metabolic and contractile response to all forms of external stimulation of skeletal muscle. (heat, mixing, transport, slaughter)
Presents as sudden death in pig at weighing, moving or shipping.
What are the clincal signs of porcine stress syndrome?
- Heavily muscled pigs
- Rapid tail tremors**
- Open mouth breathing
- Blotchy skin
- Reluctant to move
- Metabolic and respiratory acidosis
- Increase in HR and RR --> cardiac failure
- Pale muscles with edema on post mortem (PSE)
T/F Carriers of PSS are more likely to develop PSE at slaughter.
True
What is the development of PSE due to?
PM glycogenolysis and glycolysis from sudden anoxia and stimulation from the slaughter process --> denaturation of myofibrillar proteins and loss in water binding capacity.
Where does PSE usually develop?
Hams & Lions (fast twitch muscle with high glycolytic capacities)
How many teats do you want a sow to have ideally?
14, good spacing and no inverted teats
What are the components of genetic improvement?
- C-section (gives SPF piglets, minimal dz development on a nucleus farm)
- Semen
- Highest health status and biosecurity
In the Pyramid system of genetic introduction, what is a Multiplier?
A producer that purchases purebred sows, breeds then with other pure lines to produce F1 or F2 (i.e. corss breeds). They have a high health status and biosecurity and the genetic improvement is through incoming pure lines and semen.
In the Pyramid system of genetic introduction, what is a Commercial Producer?
- Purchases F1 or F2 females from the multiplier and breeds them to terminal sire (or semen) to produce market pigs.
What is a closed herd?
Herd that has only one time introduction of purebred animals with no further genetic introductions and therefore the only genetic improvement is through selection. No dz circulation because no new animals come in.
What is "In House Multiplication"?
A nucleus herd maintain genetic progress via royalty and uses purebred lines in a commercial herd without a multiplier. There is genetic improvement using top EBV semen and no dz circulation if semen is clean. Has come about because of PRRS.
Where can replacement gilts come from?
Home grown
Purchased elsewhere.
With respect to gilts, when do they reach puberty? Mature size?
140 days to puberty depending on genetics

210 days to mature size.
Gilts that doen't enter estrus by 180 days are _____ and _____
Less productive
Less likely to remain in herd.
What is the average backfat for females? What is the required amount for repro success?
14 mm avg (i.e. modern pigs are lean)

17-20mm for repro success.
When should you begin estrus detection in gilts? What should their diet be at this time? When should you breed a gilt?
140 days, record heats only using vasectomized boars

Diet: maintenance + 25%

Breed on 2 or 3 herd depending on age and backfat.
What are the goals of gilt management?
1) Early and predictable puberty
2) Successful breeding resulting in conception and minimal embryonic death
3) Large litter size
4) Good nursing ability, high piglet survival
5) Longevity
What is the most important factor in stimulating gilts to come into estrus?
The presence of a boar. (15 min direct nose-nose contact)
What factors affect the onset of puberty in gilts?
1) breed
2) season
3) housing
4) nutri level
What breeds reach sexual maturity earlier? What about cross breds? What breeds reach it later?
Yorkshire and Landrace X reach earliest

Landrace - earliest maturing purbred

Duroc - Latest
What seasons are harder to stimulate a gilt to cyle?
July, August, September
What is needed for gilts to express heat and allow access to feed and water?
Space.
What are the components of gestation management?
1) Housing
2) Nutrition
3) Health
The AVMA task force on swine welfare considers the assessment of what components for animal welfare?
1) Physiology: (i.e. gestation stalls do not induce a physiologyic response compared to group housing of pregnant sows)
2) Behavior: restricted movement, caloric consumption, decreased opportunity to forage and absence of bedding and social interaction
3) Production
4) Health - sow injury
What factors influence sow welfare?
Managment (MAJOR determinant of animal welfare)

Feeding - motivation to forage and competition for food

Environmental factors - allow sows to occupy their time and escape from aggression

Type of sow
Why were pigs moved from outside to inside?
- Easier to manage larger numbers
- Control environment
- Improve repro preformance/sow (better breeding)
- Easier to handle boars
Why were gestation stalls developed?
- More pigs/space
- Minimize aggression at feeding and weaning
- Control feeding
- Better control of repro
What are some potential issues of free stall housing?
Aggression
Feeding
Unresolved social conflict
Injury
T/F 10/14 studies showed that gestation stalls have equal or better repro performance compared to group housing.
True.
When designing a group housing system you should consider what factor?
- Pen design
- Space/sow
- Feed delivery
- Floor
- Cooling/heating
- Sleeping/resting areas
- Drinkers & feed location
- Defecation area
- Submissive sows, sick sows
What are your options for feeding sows in groups?
1) Drop feeders
2) Partial stalls
3) Enclosed stall
4) Computerized feeding system

Also trickle feeders
What are the pros and cons of gestation crates?
Pros:
Less aggression
Less lameness
Better performance?
Improved body condition

Cons:
Restricted movement
Limited social contact
Stereotypies
During gestation, why do you want to avoid overconditioning your sows?
Increase risk of mastitis, metritis, agalactiae and results in reduced appetite and therefore post-farrowing ketosis
What are some reproductive dzs in sows you should be concerned about? How are they prevented?
Parvo, Lepto, erysipelas, influenza, PRRS

Keep out of the herd and vaccinate.
Why is colostrum important in pigs?
Placentation is complete therfore no AB transfer from dam to fetus during gestation so rely on colosturm for post-farrowing immunity.
Describe the nutrition of a sow during gestation.
Post weaning: increase reqmts above maintenance for flushing --> improve ovualtion

Day 0-30. Don't want to feed at a high level because will decrease embryo survial because high levels of feeding reduce progesterone concentration because of increased blood flow and hepatic clearance. i.e DON"T overfeed good conditioned sows.

Day 30-75: Excess feed intake should be avoided

Day 100-112: Increase feed intake to avoid wt loss from rapid fetal growth

Day 112-114: feed the same or decrease slightly.

Lactation: feed as much as the sow wants, increase amts gradually to a maximum.
To achieve a minimal dz health status a farm must be free of what diseases?
PRRS
M. hyo
Actinobacillus pleuropneumonae
TGE
Swine dysentery
PAR
Mange/lice
SIV
In order to have a piglet considered SPF, how must the be delivered?
C-section
How does reproductive failure usually present?
- Reduced performance in only one parameter e.g farrowing rate
- syndrome of suboptimal performance in a number of measures
What is repro failure often the consequence of?
Management mistakes and housing inadequacies (more commonly)... or infection dz
CS of repro dz/failure vary depending on the time after mating the sow is exposed. Please describe.
1) Pathogen exporsue w/in 1st 14 days = embroyonic death and resportion and regular return to estrus

2) >14 days: complete resorption and irregular return to estrus

3) Fetal death after 35 days = incomplete resorption (mummies)

4) Last few days of gestation: pigs die or born to weak to survive (still births or increase pre-weaning morts) and prolonged gestation b/c not enough fetuses to stimulate parturition.
Why is the incidence of porcine parvovirus (PPV) herd outbreaks so rare? Can routine cleaning eliminate it?
Vaccines and immunity

No, because very stable/un-enveloped
What dz is SMEDI associated with as clinical signs and what does SMEDI stand for?
Porcine Parvovirus

Stillbirth, Mummification, Embryonic death or Infertility.
T/F abortion is a feature of porcine parvo.
False.
What is the most definitive test for dx of porcine parvo?
FA of frozen lung smears from mummified piglets.
When should you vaccinate for porcine parvo? Is this the same method and vaccines as lepto?
Gilts 2x prebreeding
Sows 1x prebreeding
Boars 2x/yr

Farrow sure, Sow Vac (killed vaccines) SAME AS LEPTO & ERYSIPELAS
T/F Outbreaks of lepto abortion are uncommon and unpredictable.
True
What is the most common lepto serovar?
Leptospira bratislava

160 servovars
What are the clinical signs of lepto?
Most are subclinical

Acute: abortion (late gestation), stillbirth, neonatal morts, fever, anorexia, jaundice, post mortem kidney leasions
Where does lepto commonly localize in the sow? (BOARDS)

How is it commonly spread?
Fallopian tubes and uterus.

Urine of carrier animals
How can lepto abortions be prevented and renal carriers eliminated?
Parenteral trt of streptomycin or oxytetracyline - one injection
How is erysipelas spread?
Pig-pig or contaminated h20 and feed. (in environment and pigs may harbor in tonsils and lymph tissue)
What enzyme causes the vascular damage associated with thromobosis and diamond lesions on the skin of erysipelas pigs?
Neuramidase.
Aside from skin lesion, what else can erysipelas cause in pigs?
Arthritis and vegetative endocarditis
T/F Most pigs exposed to erysipelas do not show CS and stress is believe to pay a role in dz outbreaks (so see in young sows close to farrowing)
True
What other bacteria can cause similar lesions to erysipelas?
Actinobacillus suis
T/F Pyelonephritis is a common cause of death in sows and Actinobaculum suis is probably the most important pathogen causing urogenital dz.
True
How do you control urogenital infection in sows?
Free access to water, hygiene, and Peniccilin IM
What do you see in a sow with endometritis?
Higher number of repeat breedings
Creamy discharge 15-25 days post breeding/farrowing
What are risk factors for endometritis?
DYSTOCIA, hygeine, natural breeding
How do you control and treat endometritis?
Cull if a small number affected
Medicated feed (tetracycline)
Hygine in environment and during AI
Adequate h2o
Use of what hormone as an injection may decrease endometritis?
Prostaglandin.

Induce sows to farrow on day 113 with PG and follow up dose as son as first piglet is born or when farrowing is over. OR PG at 1st piglet or when farrowing is over +/- PG 24 hrs later.
What are prostaglandins effects around parturition?
Decrease endometritis

Improve sow performance (decrease wean-esturs, improve conception, increase litter size)

Improve litter size (good milk production)
What management techniques can you use to decrease seasonal infertility?
Confinement housing and controlled photoperiod, avoid drafts.
What causes Autumn Abortion Syndrome?
Cold climates due to the substaintial drop in temp from day to night.
What 3 factors contribute to the annual death rate in sows from 3-10%?
Gastrosplenic torsions
Cardiac failure
Cystitis-pyelonephritis
What factors are associated with gastrosplenic torsion?
Rapid intake of feed and water in excited gestational sows, timing of feeding and fineness of feed.
What factors predispose pigs to cardiac failure?
Small heart weight to body weight ratio, obesity and high ambient temps, stress.
What are the main reasons for culling sows?
Repro failure
Lameness
Old Age
What systems shows higher culling rates?
Those concerned with genetics
When do you usually see osteoporosis in sows?
Late gestation, lactation or after weaning because of low Ca levels in the feed, large litter and high milk production
What factors are associated with foot rot and what does the infection also cause?
Wet floors, loose housing, single space feeders

Cellutitis at the coronary band "bush foot"
What is the most significant swine dz world wide?
Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome (PRRS). Causing reproductive losses, post-weaning pneumonia, decreased growth, increased mortality
Where does the PRRS virus grow?
Pulmonary Alveolar macrophages and other macrophages and germ cells.
T/F PRRS is worldwide and can be carried and transmitted (though no susceptible to dz) by cats, dogs, mice, opossums, raccoons, rats, skunks, sparrows.
True
Where do infected animals shed PRRS?
Saliva, nasal secretions, urine, semen (<90 days Post-infection), feces, late gestation shed through mammary gland
T/F Pigs of all ages are susceptible to PRRS when exposed by oronasal, oral, intrauterine, vaginal, intravenous or intraperitioneal routes and soon after exposure pigs become viremic (12-24 hours).
True
What is the #1 cause for dz spread of PRRS?
Infected animals
T/F PRRS is highly infectious (only few particles to cause infection) but not highly contagious (spread is slow from pig-pig)
True
How can PRRS be indirectly transmitted?
Aerosol, Fomites, Transport vehicles, Mosquitos & flies, ducks
At what time does the PRRS virus effectively cross the placenta to infect the fetus?
Late gestation (90 days)
Is PRRS stabile in the environment?
No, quickly destroyed by heat and light, and inactivated by solvents/detergents.
What makes PRRS virus infected animals more susceptible to secondary bacterial infection?
The alveolar macrophages are reduced in number and function.
How long are PRRS pigs viremic?
30 days
What is the difference between an acute outbreak of PRRS and an endemic infection?
Devastating vs asymptomatic
What do you see in an acute outbreak of PRRS in non-pregnant, pregnant animals, boars, piglest and weaner/nursery animals?
Non-pregnant: Anorexia, fever, lethargy, cyanosis of the ears**

Pregnant: arteritis and vasculitis in fetal umbilical cord **, umbilical cords swollen and segmentally hemorrhagic, stillbirths, weak neonates, infertility

Boars: may not show signs

Piglets: high pre-weaning mortality, weak, splay-leg, dyspnea, chemosis

Weaners/Nursery: anorexia, lethargy, cutaneous hyperemia, dyspnea, rough hair coat, increase susceptibility to other dz (H parasuis, strep suis, bacterial pneumonia), severe respiratory complications if survive to weaning.

Grow finish: typically due to combo with influenza, M hyopneumoniae, A pleuropneumonia. Morts and morbidity excessively high
What do you see with PRRS on post-mortem and what is your DDx?
Interstitial pneumonia, enlarged LN

DDx: circovirus
How long does maternal immunity to PRRS last? Should you practice SEW?
2-3 weeks, SEW important (remove the pigs and put in a clean nursery while they still have maternal protection.
What is a very important control aspect of PRRS?
Maternal immunity.
What is the outcome of PRRS infection?
- Virus will continue to circulate if no control measures
- Continous AI/AO will change outcome
- CS depend on level of viral circulation
- Decreased repro performance
- Increased secondary infections
What is the ELISA S/P ratio considered positive for PRRS?
Anything over 0.4 (but this can be due to vaccination)
What tool is your number one choice for dx of PRRS?
ELISA
If you have chronic, uncontrolled ciruclation of the PRRS virus, what do you typically see in the sow herd?
- Decreased reproperformance
- Increased secondary infections
- Mini outbreaks
- Persistent shedders
- Naive replacement gilts infected
- Boars intermittently shed virus
If you have chronic, uncontrolled ciruclation of the PRRS virus, what do you typically see in the nursery?
- Virus begins to circulate as maternal immunity declines, especially in continuous flow systems
- Secondary infections
- Reduced growth
With respect to PRRS virus classification, what are the levels of stability?
Stable: no detectable viral transmission from sow to sow, or sow to piglet

Unstable: outbreak (recent infection or chronic infection w/ improper control methods)
With respect to PRRS virus classification, what are the levels of Activity and what does activity mean?
Activity refers to transmission and immunity in offspring.

Active: transmission from pig to pig in offspring. Source is likely a reservoir of positive animals.

Inactive: no transmission

Stable/Active: Breeding herd immunity stable, weaned population stable until maternal immunity is lost. Older animals or those mixed from unstable breeding population cause ciruclation. See CS in nursery and grow finish

Stable/Inactive: Weaners have no exposure when maternal immunity wanes so one positive pig infects the whole buch
What is the goals of PRRS control programs?
Limit the effects of the virus
What are different methods of PRRS control programs?
Depopulation/Repopulation
Stabilize the breeding herds
Closed herd
In herd Biosecurity
Immunization
Acclimitization
SEW
Control in nursery
Partial depopulation in nursery
Test and Remove
Parity Segregation
Site Segregation
Boar stud biosecurity
Describe depopulation/repopulation with respect to PRRS control programs.
Costly
High success of removing the virus
Risk of re-infection must be gauged
With a stabilized breeding herd as a method of PRRS control, what is the goal?
To produce negative piglets.

Closed herd, stimulate immunity in all breeding animals, AI/AO, gilt acclimitization is key!
Describe a Closed Herd for PRRS control?
Prevents introduction of naive replacements, no circulation of virus is immunity is homologous and breeding herd stablizes. Can re-introduce naive gilts if confident and biosecurity must be excellent.
What are the components of Acclimitization with respect to PRRS control?
Gilt intro is key to control, controlled exposure of naive replacements to field virus on farm.

Should be away from breeding herd and measure the response to virus exposure by ELISA. Pigs become viremic and recover and this will minimize reproductive losses.
What is SEW with respect to PRRS control?
Piglets are taken off site while still under maternal immune protection and come from a stable herd. AI/AO pig flow must be strict and biosecurity must be tight.
With PRRS virus, when do you want to use control in the nursery?
When there is high nursery mortality in attempt to control secondary infections. Use offsite nurseries and SE to try and break the disease cycle (depop at 14 days can reduce clinical dz in these pigs).
T/F To prevent PRRS infection in sow herds, biosecurity measures must first be implemented to prevent boar studs from being infected.
True
T/F After detection of PRRS in a boar stud, shipment of semen must stop immediately.
True
What is the most practical test to detect PRRS in a boar stud?
PCR testing of semen
What is a huge red flag for PRRS infection in boars?
When they go off feed.
Is semen or serum more sensitive for PRRS testing by PCR? Why?
Serum

Because semen only variably sheds PRRS.
What is one of the biggest risks in PRRS transmission?
Bringing in new animals.
What are some biosecurity protocols?
- Quarantine of all animal and PCR testing of semen
- Changing & showering prior to entry and leaving
- Vehicle disinfection
- No pig contact for 12-72 - "down time"
What is biosecurity?
- Security process of preventing biological contamination on the farm
- Measures to protect from infection
- Any broad range of practices enforced at a farm to prevent transmission of pathogens from other sources by feed, pigs, people, or other animals.
How long should new animals be quarantined for PRRS?
30 days and re-test
How long is "down time"?
4 hours.

Basic sanitation is very effective in ridding personnel of swine pathogens, eliminating people as mechanical vectors of disease.
What swine pathogens have rodents been noted to carry?
Brachyspira hyodystenerea
Salmonella
E. coli
Bordetella bronchiseptica
Leptospira
EMC
ASF
Toxoplasma
PRRS?
PRV?
What do you have to consider in farm location for swine?
- 5 km radius from other swine farms
- Long driveway
- Aerosolization of pathogens
What is one way to ensure high levels of AB in colostrum pre-farrowing? What do you vaccinate against and at what interval?
Vaccination - E. Coli, Strep suis, Erysipelas (killed vaccines)

Gilts: 2x - 4 wk and 2 wk pre-farrowing
Sows: 1x - 2 wk pre-farrowi
What are the goals of breeding, gestation and farrowing?
GET LOTS OF PIGLETS TO MARKET.

Breeding: max # of eggs ovulated and fertilized

Gestation: Ensure embroy survival to max pigs/litter, keep sow healthy.

Farrow: keep piglets viable
What are your options for farrowing?
1) Farrowing crates
2) Farrowing pens/huts
3) Group pen
What is the main advantage of farrowing crates?
Decrease pre-weaning mortality (less crushing of piglets)
Why do you want to ensure good hygiene for farrowing? How can you do this?
- Reduce challenge to newborn piglets

- Wash the farrowing crates, was the sows.

Also reduces the risk of cystitis, metritis and mastitis
What kind of farrowing is easiest?
Batch farrowing with AI/AO
What do you want to deworm your sows with pre-farrowing to prevent the spread to piglets?
Atgard (Dichlorvos) scoop on feed - protects gain Trichuris suis, Ascaris suum (most common) and Oesophagostomum.

14 day meat withdrawl
How often should you deworm your sow herd?
Every 3-4 months with Safe-gaurd (Fenbendazole)
Why would you not want to deworm with Ivomectin?
$$$ and 28 day withdrawl.
What are signs of farrowing in the sow?
- Enlarged abdomen, enlarged vulva
- Mammary glands englarged
- Nesting behavior
Who initiates farrowing in swine?
The fetuses. Fetal cortisol stimulates release of prostaglandin --> luteolysis and rapid decrease in Progesterone
What is the average length of farrowing?
2.5 hours.
Why would you want to consider farrowing induction in a sow?
Dystocia management
Facilitate cross fostering
REDUCE STILLBIRTHS! (biggest factor)
How do you induce farrowing in a sow?
PDF2 and oxytocin 12 hours later
How old should a sow be before you induce farrowing?
112-113 days
How common is dystocia?
<3& of farrowings
What causes dystocia?
Uterine inertia
Breach presentation
Obstruction of the birth canal
Simultaneous presentation of 2 fetuses
Oversized/mal-formed fetuses
What are signs of dystocia in a sow?
- Straining w/o delivery of piglets
- Cessation of labor after straining, birth of a few piglets
- Abnormal discharges (blood, meconium)
In dystocia management what should you always do before giving oxytocin?
Vaginal exam.
What can cause savaging of piglets?
Pain & fear
Inability to perform normal nesting behaviors
What are the different phases of milk production?
Colostral phase: high amounts of immunglobulins (12-24 hrs)

Ascending phase: D1-D10, increased nursing

Plateau phase
What are the 5 cyclical phases of piglet suckling behavior?
1) Initial grunts from sow and piglets assemble

2) Piglets vigorously massage the udder, fight and are noisy

3) Sow increases her grunting rate to indicate milk let down

4) Piglets become quiet and hold a teat in their mout and then as milk ejection occurs, piglets drink with rapid jaw movements

5) Milk ejection last 20-30 seconds and piglets continue to massage the udder for a few minutes
How often does milk let down occur?
24-26x/day
What is the average birth weight of a piglet?
1.3-1.4kg
What is the average number of piglets the producer wants born alive?
12
What is the average percent of stillbirths? Mummies?
5-7% stillbirths
1% mummies
When should you cross foster piglets if you have uneven litters or sizes?
W/in the 1st 24 hours
What are the signs of scours in piglets?
Red swollen anus, dirty piglets
What are some of the components of routine piglet processing?
- Iron injection
- Teeth cutting
- Tail docking
- Castration
- Vit E/Se
What is the cardiovascular lesion seen in piglets with vit E/Se deficiency?
Mulberry Heart Dz - myocardial necrosis
What are the major causes of piglet death?
Trauma
Chilling
Starvation
Diarrhea
What is your Pre-weaning mortality goal?
<10% (1 pig/litter)
What are risk factors for Pre-weaning mortalilty? What is the #1?
#1- People
small birth weight
sow health and nutrition
temperature (around 32C is ideal)
hygeine
What are the enteric diseases of piglets?
E. Coli (Collibacillosis ETEC)
TGE
Clostridia enteritis
rotavirus
coccidosis (I. suis)
parasites
What are the clinical signs of Colibacillosis (E. coli scours)? What strain of E. coli causes this.
Variable depending on the immune stats, virulence factors and dose.

Usually acute, severe, WATERY diarrhea in newborsn <7days old

Caused by ETEC
What is the pathogenesis of ETEC?
Fibrial adhesions target specific gut wall receptors so bacti can colonize the gut and secrete enterotoxins --> secretory diarrhea
What is the clinical picture of Colibacillosis?
- More common in gilt litters (because less AB in colostrum)
- Entire litter can be scouring or just a few piglets
- Red anus
- Usually watery, clear diarrhea
- Rapid dehydration, eye sunken and lose BW fast
- Often see reduced milk intake therefore less lactogenic immunity
- Piglets usually huddle and shiver.
What are the risk factors for Colibacillosis?
Continuous flow, contaminated crates, dirty sow, lack of immunity, buildup of E coli in environment, etc
What factors should you consider in the diagnosis of Colibacillosis?
1-5 day old piglets, dehydration, SOWS NOT SICK

Bacteriology

Histopath: gut wall may be intact of may be necrosis of the villi & microvascular thrombosis

Slide agglutination test - ID serogroup
What are the trts for Colibacillosis? What about prevention?
- ABx
- Fluid therapy

Prevention: ensure immunity > challenge.... vacination, resistant pig selection, etc
What kind of diarrhea does Rotavirus produce?
Malabsorptive diarrhea caused by loss of intestinal absorptive cells from **moderate villous atrophy**.
What are the CS of Rotavirus?
- Morbidity variable, mortality is low
- Yellow-white creamy diarrhea (malabsorptive)
- Pigs 1-6 weeks
- Clinical dz develops when challenge > immunity (lactogenic)
What are the diagnostic techniques for rotavirus?
Histopath - moderate villous atrophy
Latex agglutination test of feces
EM
FAT
What are the mechanisms you can use to control rotavirs?
Prefarrow vaccination
Good husbandry
Gilt immunity
What type of flooring systems usually sees a problem with Isospora suis? What is their susceptibility to disinfectants?
Concrete

Resistant to almost all disinfectants
What are the 3 different phase os I suis development?
Sporogony phase - when oocytes sporulate (~12 hrs in farrowing room environments)

Excystation phase - when oocysts have been ingested

Endogenous phase - parasite multiplies and causes necrodis of the tips of the villi
What type of diarrhea occurs with I. Suis infection and what does it result in with respect to productivity of the piglets?
Malabsorptive and effusive diarrhea creamy yellow grey that doesn't respond to Abx. Affects piglets b/w 1-3 wks. See poor weight gain and lower growth rates.
How can you dx I suis?
Time of onset and CS
Mucosal smears and histo +/-
Fecal smears or floats +/-
How many toxigenic types of C. perfringens type C are their? What kind of bacteria is this?
5 toxigenic types
Large Gram + anaerobe, spore forming
What kind of diarrhea does C. perfingens type C result in?
Acute hemorrhage diarrhea in pigs less than 7 days because of **severe nectrotizing enteritis**. High mortality
What is the pathogenesis of C perfringens?
Shed by sows, survive in the environments, nectrotizing B-toxin causes necrosis of microvilli and desquamation of epithelial cells --> hemorrhagic effusive diarrhea
How do you dx C perfingens?
Lesions of necros and hemorrhage involving the entire small intestine on PM.
Anaerobic culture
ELISA & PCR of gut contents
How do you treat C perfingens?
Boost immunity & clean environment
What are the characteristics of TGE**?
- Porcine Respiratory Coronavirus
- Common cause of scours in NA and Europe in swine dense areas
- ** Acute malabsorptive syndrome (diarrhea)
- Virus can remain on inanimate objects when temp is cold therefore can be transmitted
- Isolated from lungs 100 days after exposure
- Fecal shedding for 2 weeks
What is the pathogensis of TGE**?
** Severe Villous atrophy - piglets recover as villous re-grow. Young piglets cannot respond quick enough. 100% mortality
Shedding in milk due to replication in mammary tissue
What is the clinical presentation of the 2 forms of the Epidemic and Endemic forms of TGE?
Epidemic: ALL ages affects, severe watery diarrhea, rapid dehydration. Losses greates in farrowing room, no response to trt w/ Abx, rapid spread through barn.

Endemic form: sows may show partial anorexia depending on immunity. Piglets are clinically sick, more common in continuous flow systems
How do you dx TGE?
Clinical picture (**watery, smelly, yellow diarrhea, vomiting), no response to Abx, isolation of viral antigen w/ IFAT & PCR, villous atrophy on histo path. ** Serum neutralization is the gold standard
Should you treat TGE in an outbreak?
NO!
What is the key to TGE treatment?
Achieve herd stabilization - expose everyone.

Strict biosecurity. No actual trt.
Why can the endemic form of TGE persist on a farm?
Persists due to susceptible/naive animals, new introductions and continuous flow.
What strategies should you consider to stabilize your herd with TGE?
Closed herd
Vaccinate (esp sows to pass on to piglets)
AI/AO
What are the non-porcine host of TGE?
Dogs, cats, foxes, starlings
Porcine Respiratory Coronavirus evolved from what other dz condition in pigs? Will PRCV cause disease on its own?
TGE

Will not cause dz on its own - Ab-cross protection decreases with TGE outbreaks.
What dzs cause CNS/nervous dz in piglets?
CNS/Nervous dz -
hypoglycemia
menigitis
congenital tremors
Pseudorabies
Hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus
At what age does weaning occur?
2-4 weeks. (usually 3)
What is the impact of weaning on the sow?
Decreased prolactin secretion--> increase in FSH, LH --> follicle growth --> cylce again in 4-7 days
What is the impact of weaning on the piglet?
- STRESS! - Change in nutrition, housing, social
What is the key to minimizing the negative impacts of weaning on the piglet?
Decrease stress
Why are producers moving toward earlier weaning?
Increase the number of pigs/sow/year and improve sow condition post weaning.
What are the common problems of weaned pigs related to management?
Weak, small pigs
Not adjusting to solid food
Inadequate water
Temperature too cold
What types of housing can newly weaned pigs be moved to?
- New room - nursery
- Multisite - isowean - new building
- Sows removed - stay in crates
What are the key factors to consider for weaned piglet housing?
Temp
Hygiene
Why do producers provide creep feed?
Decrease risk of post weaning scours and decrease stress on piglet GIT at weaning.
What are some strategies to overcome the stress of social changes at weaning?
Commingling while still on sow
Mix a whole group at one time and no further additions
What is the difference between piglets weaned at an older age vs those weaned at a younger age?
Older age: lower risk of dz, better weight gains
Younger age: less wt gain post weaning
What the multifactorial components of Post Weaning E. Coli scours?
- Pathogen
- Environment
- Diet
- Weight/Age of piglet
- Concurrent Dz (e.g PRRS, TGE)
- Genetic susceptibility
What are the two presentations of E. coli 2 post weaning presentations?
1) Post weaning E. coli diarrhea - watery diarrhea
2) Edema Dz (not as common)
What are the CS of edema dz E. coli? What are the DDx?
Low morbidity, high mortality
Sudden death in weaned piglets
+/- CNS signs
+/- diarrhea
** swollen eyelids, forehead, lips**

DDx: salt toxicity, PRV, Menigoencephalitis
What are the CS of Post Weaning E coli Diarrhea?
- Death
- 2 days post weaning or peak at 6-14 days.
- Distended abdomens, sunken eyes
- Mild - severe diarrhea (Watery or pasty)
- Depressed, red perineum.
Dx of PWED includes what findings on PM?
- Fluid filled, hyperemic intestinal tract and dehydration
- Histo: Bacteria adhere to the villi, vascular congestion, hemorhage
What does the treatment of PWED consist of?
Sick pens
Trt individual pigs IM
Abx in H2O
** Electrolytes in H2O
What nutrional supplements should be considered when dealing with PWED?
- CHO - may provide a substrate for bacti prolif
- Pr - " "
- Ca - favor E. coli growth
- Spray dried plasma
- Acidifers
- Water - may be contaminated with E. coli
- Zn Oxide
- Se
What are some of the risk factors for PWED?
- Chilling
- Difficult to clean floor surfaces
- Disinfectants need to be used after you remove organic matter
- Leave the room to dry for 24 hrs before allow pigs in.
How can a producer help prevent PWED?
Hygeine & nutritional management
Vaccination
Control concurrent viral dz
Porcine Circovirus Associated Dz is typically present where and how are pigs exposed**?
- PCV-2 EVERYWHERE!
- Oronasal exposure
What are the factors that can contribute to PCVAD**?
1) Barrows
2) Genetics
3) Low birth weight
4) Low weaning weight
5) Other infectious dz present on the farm
What is the pathogensis of PCVAD**?
- Unknown --> immunostimulation and up regulation required (co-infection or vaccination can result in immunostimulation)
What do you see clinically with PCVAD?
- weaned pigs
- 5-80% of pigs affected
- Wasting/unthriftiness
- Enlarged LN
- Diarrhea (profuse, watery)
- Pallor/Anemia
- Jaundice
What are the keys to Dx of PCVAD?
** Intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies on histo. + interstital pneumonia, lymphocyte depletion

Gross PM:
Severe wasting, elarged LN, firm, noncollapsing lungs, White foci on kidneys
When do we typically see PCVAD?
- Sporadic in most herds
- High prevalence in herd w/ concurrent dz (PRRS, Parvo, Mycoplasma pneumonia)
When you see PCVAD, what diseases will this prompt you to think about that you should control as concurrent dz?
- PRRS
- SIV
- PPV
- Bacteria
- Mycoplasma hyopneumonia
What other factors should you consider when looking at "what else" is going on on a farm with PCVAD?
- Oil in water vaccines
- Decrease stress
- Pig comfort
- Stocking density
- Minimize mixing and regrouping
- AI/AO
- Hygiene
What virus is Porcine Dermatitis and Nephropathy Syndrome associated with? What are the clinical signs?
PCV-2

Older animals, low morbidity, dermatitis, red-purple plaques on dependent areas, no response to ABx, anorexic, fever, depressed. Kidney shows glomerulonephritis and surface hemorrhages!
Briefly describe Step suis.
Normal flora of URT, Genital and GI tracts, healthy carriers, significant problem in high health herds. Menigitis is the most commone presentation - incoordination, abnormal behavior, inability to stand, paddling, convulsions, nystagmus.
Problem: You are present with recently weaned pigs showing incoordination, abnormal behavior, inability to stand, paddling, convulsions, nystagmus. What is your top Ddx?
Strep suis infection
What is the biggest factor in reducing the risk of Strep suis infection?
Reduce stress!
If you see a pig (especially a comingled SPF pig) with a rapid onset of CNS signs including tremors, incoordination or inability to rise, fever, depression, swollen joints and severe lameness. On PM the pig showed fibrinopurulent exudate in the peritoneal cavity, pericardial sac, thorax and joints. What disease should you consider?
Glasser's Dz, Hemophilus parasuis
What is the pathogenesis of Glasser's Dz?
Vasculitis that localizes in the leptomenigies and brain and production of an inflam rxn on the serosal surfaces of the body!
T/F Pigs of all ages are susceptible to PRRS.
True
Problem: You are presented with a pig with a lymphopenia, monocytopeni, and neutropenia, reduced alveolar macrophages, interstitial pneumonia and enlarged LN. The rest of the herd is showing an increased mortality, laboured breathing, stunted growth, anorexia and increased secondary infections. What is the likely Dx?
PRRS
T/F Water deprivation/Na poisoning is a common DDx for CNS signs.
True
Problem: Before death this pig presented with thirst, ataxia, circling, head pressing, and convulsions. On PM exam (because morts are high), these pathognomoic finding where noted on histopath: ** Meningoencephalitis w/ edema, eosinophil accumulations around the vessels of the cerebral cortex and meniges. What is your Dx?
Na Poisoning/Water deprivation
What are 6 skin diseases of swine?
Greasy Pig
Mange
Pityriasis rosea
Erysipleas
PDNS
What is the caustive organism of Greasy Pig Disease?
Staph hyicus
(part of normal flora but need stress and break in skin to get dz)
Problem: A pig presents with small scabs around the head and face in the weaner room. The lesions look like they are spreading to the underbelly of the animal and you notice a few of the other animals in the group are starting to show similar signs. What is likely going on in this situation? What is the recommended treatment?
Greasy Pig Dz (Staph hyicus)

Aggressive treatment - Exenel (Ceftiofur) best, or TMS. Topical treatments of mineral oil, special formula and neomycin or Virkon also possible.
Problem: You notice a group of pigs that have crusty lesions in their ears (reddened macule and papules) and thickened skin. Some pigs are also showing similar lesions on their top lines. The lesions are itchy and the pigs are rubbing themselves frequently. What is the likely diagnosis?

What is the recommended treatment?
Mange - Sarcoptes scabiei var suis

Eradication - treat all animals 2x w/ Ivermectin injection or in feed for 16 days. Or inject sows prior to farrowing
Problem: You are presented with a single pig that has a pustular dermatitis that has epidermal collarettes/rings on the ventral abdoment and inner thighs. The lesions do not appear pruritic. What is the likely diagnosis and what is the etiology?
Pityriasis rosea

Inheirted.
Problem: You note that the skin of one pig seems to have failed to close on the top line of the animal. You suspect what inherited congenital condition? What would be your DDx?
Epitheliogenesis imperfecta.

DDx: Trauma
What is the most common neoplastic skin disease and what breed is it associated with?
Melanoma - Duroc breed.
Problem: You are presented with a sow on concrete floors in a farrowing crate who has lost condition during lactation and has what appears to be pressure sores on her shoulder mainly (but also hip and side of jaw). What is your top DDx?
Skin Necrosis
What is the most common skin disease seen in pigs?
Erysipelas
What is the most common presentation of Vit E/Se deficiency?
Mulberry heart Dz - see white streaks of necrosis on the heart and pericardial effusion
What is the most common area for gastric ulceration in the pig stomach?
Pars esophageal region
List the risk factors of gastric ulceration in swine.
- Fine particle size of feeds
- Corn and wheat diets
- Method of delivery, interruptions of intake or off feed.
Problem: You are presented with a herd of swine that was recently feed a diet high in corn from an unknown source. All of the gilts in the herd are showing big swollen vulvas, you are also seeing small litter, stillbirth, increas repeat breedings and a long period of post farrowing anestrous. What is the likely source of the problem?
Zearalenone - common mycotoxin from corn feed that is highly estrogenic.
What is the key clinical feature of myotoxin problems in swine?
All the animals are affected at the same time.
What is the most common mycotoxin in Canada?
Vomitoxin
How can you manage a problem with mycotoxins in your feed?
Get rid of the feed or DILUTE IT OUT. Add a mycotoxin inhibitor and a flavor enhancer too.
A group of pigs are showing signs of Porcine Pulmonary Edema and also hepatonecrosis on PM - What mycotoxin do you suspect?
Fumosin
You notice on a local hobby farm that the owners pigs and also cows are showing signs of periperhal gangrene - where there is necrosis and sloughing of the ears tails and hooves, agalactia, and slow growth. What toxin do you suspect?
Ergotism
Problem: You notice a few grower pigs with swollen stifle joints and swollen forelimb (around the area of the distal ulna) that are growing rapidly (as the producer wants them too) and are housed on concrete floors. What is the most likely cause of the lameness?
OCD of the medial femoral condyle and distal growth plate of the ulna.