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112 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What important changes in the brain take place during infancy?
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-changes in nervous system are rapid in first 2 years
-development of dendrites and synapses reaches first peak between 12-24 months -pruning occurs -Myelinization of nerves occurs rapidly during first 2 years |
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How do infants' reflexes and behavioral states change?
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Adaptive: essential responses such as sucking
Primitive: the Moro (startle) and Babinski reflexes (curl toes, etc) which disappear within a few months -Neonates move through a series of states of consciousness in a cycle that lasts about two hours |
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How do infants' body change, and what is the typical pattern of motor skill development in the first 2 years?
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-bones increase in number and density
-muscle fibers become larger and contain less water -stamina improves as lungs grow and the heart gets stronger -Motor skills improve rapidly in first 2 yrs from "creeping", crawling, walking, running, and able to grasp objects |
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What are the nutritional needs of infants?
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Breast feeding is better than bottle feeding
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What are infants health care and immunization needs?
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Babies need regular checkups and a variety of immunizations
-prompt treatment for respiratory infections is also crucial -chronic ear infections common |
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What have researchers learned about SIDS?
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-most common cause of death between 1 month- 1yr olds in the US
-Risk factors: sleeping on stomach, sleep apnea, exposure to tobacco smoke before and after birth, too warm of an enviro., poverty |
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How do infant mortality rates vary across groups?
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-Black, Hawaiian American, and Native American children are more likely to die within first year than others
-Poverty= likely cause -7/1000 babies die per year in US |
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How do infant's visual abilities change across the first months of life?
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-rapid devel. of visual activity (20/200 vision)
-Color vision by 1 month (red blue green) -Tracking: attention and memory to something. Slow moving objects before 2 months and skilled by 6-10 weeks |
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How do infant's senses of hearing, smell, taste, touch, and motion compare to those of older children and adults?
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-Hearing: adult voices and directional loud-sound location
-Smelling and Tasting: react to each basic taste differently -Touch/Motion: best and most developed sense |
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How do depth perception and patterns of looking change over the first two years?
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-basic depth perception= present by 3 months
-use kinetic, binocular, and pictorial cues by 5-7 mon. -Babies can discriminate mothers face from all other faces and moms voice as well directly after birth |
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How do infants perceive human speech, recognize voices and recognize sound patterns other than speech?
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Birth: discriminate among speech contrasts present in all possible languages
1 yr: makes fine discriminations only among language they are hearing 6 mon: discriminate different patterns of sounds (melodies or speech inflections) |
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Intermodal Perception
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Formation of single perception of stimulus that is based on information from 2 or more senses
-able to close eyes, feel and smell a cookie and understand that its a cookie |
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What are the milestones of Piaget's sensorimotor stage?
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Primary circular reaction: simple repetitive actions with body (sucking thumb)
Secondary: Repeats action in order to trigger response outside of body (cooing which makes mom smile) Tertiary: exploration of the environment Object premanence Means-end behavior: keep goal in mind and create plan to achieve it Deferred imitation: childs imitation of some action at a later time |
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What are some challenges offered to Piaget's explanation of infant cognitive development?
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Piaget underestimated the infants capabilities and degree to which concepts may be wired to the brain.
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What does research tell us about infants understanding of objects?
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developing object permanence= process of elaboration rather than rather than discovery
around 1 yr can use sufficiently across situations |
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What kinds of learning are infants capable of?
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Classical/Operant conditioning and observing models
By 14 months more likely to imitate models that are competent |
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Learning
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Permanent changes in behavior that result from experience
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How does categorical understanding change over the first two years?
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Infants use categories to organize info and over next 2 years, sophistication and understanding increases. (hierarchal/subordinate categories appear)
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How does memory function in first 2 years?
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3 and 4 month olds can remember things for a few days or even a week
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What are the nativist, behaviorist, and interactionist explanations of language development?
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B= learn thru parental reinforcement (Skinner)
N= innate language processor helps them learn language rules (Chomsky- kids say ranned instead of ran) I= subprocess of cognitive development (includes internal and external influences) |
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Language
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bridge btw social and cognitive development
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Enviro. Influences on language develop.
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-IDS (high-pitched infant-directed speech) attracts attention of kids to simple and repetitive expressions that adults use.
-Amnt of verbal interaction -Poverty |
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How do infants sounds, gestures, and understanding of words change in the early months of life?
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Birth= Cries
2 Months= Cooing 6 m= Babbling 9 m= Meaningful gestures and can understand small vocab spoken |
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Receptive Language
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Ability to understand words
-begins at 8 months and -9-10 m they can understand 20-30 words and -13 m they have 100 words |
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Expressive Language
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Ability to produce words
-12-13 m they begin to say words -they learn in context with specific situations and cues |
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How does language development vary across cultures?
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-early word learning follows similar patterns in all cultures
-word order of telegraphic speech depends on which language he is learning |
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How is intelligence measured in infancy?
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Bayley Scales of Infant Development measures primary sensory and motor skills
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Freud vs Ericksons views of personality development in the first 2 years
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Freud: individual differences originate in the nursing and weaning practices of the infants mothers
Erikson: emphasized role of mother, father, and outside influences which instill a sense of trust concerning the social world. Trust vs Mistrust stage (monkeys and wire/cloth mothers) |
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Attachment Theory
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-Evolutionary forces have endowed infants with genes that predispose them to form emotional bonds with their care givers.
-Ethologists argue= early emotional bonds are the foundation of later personality and social development. -First 2 years of life= critical or sensitive period of development for attachment |
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Symbiotic relationship
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mother and infant act as one
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Ethological Perspective
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all animals and humans have innate predispositions that strongly influence their devel.
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Internal Model Elements
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-childs confidence or lack there of that the attachment figure will be available or reliable
-expectation of rebuff or affection -sense of assurance that the other is really a safe base for exploration *affects memory and attention |
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Synchrony
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-Mutual, interlocking pattern of attachment behaviors
-Fathers interact physically and mothers more caregiving |
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Four phases of attachment
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1) Nonfocused orienting and signaling (birth-3m)
2) Focus on one or more figures (3-6m) 3) Secure base behavior (6-24m) 4) Internal model (24<) |
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Nonfocused orienting and signaling phase
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Exhibit behaviors that draw attention to others and signal their needs, even strangers
-crying, smiling |
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Focus on one or more figures
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-Direct "come here" signals to fewer people, usually the people they spend most time with and are less responsive to unfamiliar people.
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Secure Base Behavior Phase
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-Show proximity-seeking behaviors by being clingy especially when they are in survive mode to the primary caregiver
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Internal Model
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-can imagine how anticipated action might affect bonds with caregiver
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Stranger anxiety
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cling to mothers when strangers are present
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Separation anxiety
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when they cry or protest being separated from mother
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Social Referencing
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Use cues in facial expressions or tones of voice to determine how to handle novel situations
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Four attachment patterns Ainsworth discovered (Strange Situation Experiment)
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1) secure attachment: easily separates and explores but seeks out caregiver when in need
2) insecure/avoidant: aviods contact with mother, indifference towards preference of mother or stranger 3) insecure/ambivalent: needs caregiver to function, hates strangers 4) insecure/disorganized: confused and contradictory behavior patterns |
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Variables that affect ability to establish an attachment relationship with baby
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-Emotional Availability: able and willing to form relationship
-Contingent Responsiveness: sensitive to childs cues and respond appropriately -Marital status -Age -Mental Health |
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In what ways do patterns of attachment vary across cultures?
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-Secure attachment is most common but cultures differ in frequency of diff types of insecure attachments
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On which dimensions of temperment do most developmentalists agree?
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-activity level: tendency to move often and vigorously
-approach/positive emotionality:move toward new things accompanied by positive emotion -inhibition/anxiety: respond with fear to new things -negative emotionality: respond with anger "difficult child" -effortful control/task persistence: ability to stay focused |
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Subjective self
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-figuring out that he is seperate from others and that this separate self endures over time and space
-fully emerged once object permanence is achieved |
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Objective self
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-She is also an object in the world. Places self within descriptive categories
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Emotional Self
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-learn to identify changes in emotion expressed in others' faces
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Why is it difficult to study the effects of nonparental care on development?
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-there are so many types of nonparental care arrangements (raised by grandparents, receive day-care, etc)
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Effects of non parental care
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-over weight
-nonparental care can affect cognition positively or negatively depending on enviro. |
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What does research suggest about risks of nonparental care with respect to social development?
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-home-care vs day-care has recieved mixed results regarding social develop.
-some say day-care kids are more aggressive, others dont |
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variables regarding research of nonparental care
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-physiological response to stress
-quality vs quantity of care -individual diff |
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Major Milestones of growth and development between 2 and 6
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-physical devel.= slower than infancy but still steady
-improvement in gross motor skills (running, jumping) -slower improvements in fine motor skills |
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What important changes happen in brain during these years?
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-Changes in brain lateralization occur in early childhood
(specialization of left and right hemispheres) -Handedness |
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Nutritional and health-care needs of young children
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-slower rates of growth contribute to declines in apetite
-stress is a factor in early childhood illnesses such as colds and flu -4-6 bouts of sickness per year -25% of kids younger than 5 are in a car accident |
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What factors contribute to abuse/neglect
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Abuse: physical/psychological injury resulting from adults intentions
-80% by parents -under 3 yr= most vulnerable -can be physical, sexual, or emotional Neglect: when guardian doesnt provide necessary survival resources intentionally |
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Correlations of neglect and abuse
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-low selfesteem
-aggression -social difficulties -insecure attachments |
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Preoperational stage
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-uses mental symbols
-fooled by appearances |
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Centration
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Tendency to think of world one variable at a time
-belief that inanimate objects are alive |
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Egocentrism
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View things from own perspective
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Conservation
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change in appearance can occur without change in quantity (Poker chips)
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Theory of Mind
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Set of ideas constructed by a child or adult to explain other peoples ideas, beliefs, desires and behavior
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Metamemory
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knowledge about and control of memory processes
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Metacognition
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Knowledge about and control of thought process
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Scripts
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cognitive structures underlie behavior and emerge during middle childhood
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Fast Mapping
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Ability to link, categorically, new words to real world referents
-hypothesis of words based on context |
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Grammar explosion
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Period when grammatical features of child speech becomes more adult-like
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Phonological Awareness
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Childs sensitivity to sound patterns that are specific to a language
-tied to literacy |
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Overextension
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Child is using wrong words to describe things but is still logic
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Invented spelling
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strategy kids use with good phonological awareness skills while writing
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Influences of Intelligence
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Heredity
Family Influence Physical Well-Being Twin and adoptive studies |
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How did Freud and Erikson describe early childhood?
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Freud: gain control over bodily functions and renegotiate parent relationships
Erikson: agreed with Freud but added focus on social skill development |
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What are the findings of social-cognitive theorists with respect to young childrens understanding of the social world?
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-Advances in social and personality development are associated with cognitive development
-Persons perception, understanding others intentions and understanding rule categories |
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Persons Perception
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Catgorize others based on observable characteristics
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Understanding others intentions
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Theory of mind
-Choices bound by consequences |
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Understanding Rule categories
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social conventions and social rules
good vs bad |
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Temperment
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How your engine runs
-genetic |
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How does temperment change in early childhood?
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Temperments are modified by social experiences within and outside of family to form their personalities
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Gender Schema Theory
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development of gender schema underlies gender development and occurs with recognition of gender differences within themselves and others
1)label own gender 2)understand stability of gender 3)comprehend constancy of gender |
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How does attachment change in early years?
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Secure vs insecure determines behavior problems or lack there of
-By age 4 they form goal-corrected partnerships |
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How do parenting styles affect childs development?
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Authoritative: warmth, clear rules, communication with high maturity demands = best outcome
Authoritarian= some neg affects Permissive/passive and uninvolved= worst outcome |
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How is family structure related to child devel.?
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Any family that doesnt include two biological parents is linked to more negative outcomes
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How does divorce affect childrens behavior?
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-show disrupted behavior for several years
-parenting styles become less authoritative -many effects of divorce are associated to problems that existed before divorce happened |
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What kinds of play are exibited in preschoolers?
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-Play with peers is increasingly important
-spend some play observing others -parallel play, associative play, cooperative play |
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Parallel Play
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Playing alongside eachother but not interacting
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Associative Play
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includes some interaction
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Cooperative Play
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work together to accomplish goal
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How do prosocial behavior and friendship patterns change during early childhood?
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-prosocial behavior becomes more common as ability to take on others perseptions increase
-stable friendships develop |
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Physical changes in middle childhood
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-steady and slow
-gain 2-3 inches in height and 6 lbs each year -sex differences in bones and muscles lead boys and girls to do diff activities |
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How does brain change in middle childhood?
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-major growth spurts
-improvements in selective attention, information-processing speed and spatial perception |
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3 most important health hazards for 6-12 yrs
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-Benefit from health care
-head injuries, asthma and excessive weight gain |
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How does vocab change in midd child
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-vocabulary growth
-improvements in grammar -understanding social uses of language |
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Concrete operational stage
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-can understand reversability (clay sausage can be turned back into a ball) and decentration (takes multiple variables into account)
-uses inductive logic (use her experience to general principle) but not deductive (start with principle and predict outcome) |
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Horizontal decalage
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-kids dont master piagets concrete operational tasks at the same time
-operations migth be rules to solve problems |
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How does information-processing improve in middle childhood?
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-speed and efficiency
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What should be included in an effective literacy curriculum?
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-need specific instruction in sound-symbol correspondences, word parts, and other aspects of written language
-need exposure to good literature and have opportunities to practice reading and writing skills |
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What kinds of group differences in achievement have researchers found?
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-Boys do better in math, Girls better verbally
-ethnic diff (type of ed) -western focuses on innate abilities -eastern believes in hard work for achievment |
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Learning Disabilities
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-Difficulty mastering specific academic skill
-They have normal intelligence and no physical/ sensory handicap -Dyslexia |
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ADHD
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Neurobiological disorder
-medication, parent-training and behavior modification help |
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How does Freud and Erikson characterize middle childhood
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Freud: challenge is to from emotional bonds with peers and move beyond sole earlier formed bonds (latency stage)
Erikson: Challenge is to develop a sense of competence and willingness to work |
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Self Efficacy
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If I try hard enough, I can achieve something
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Big 5 personality traits
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1)Extra/Intraversion: Where does your energy get revived the most? Around people or not?
2)Agreeableness:How easy going are you 3)Conscientiousness: Organization 4)Neuroticism: How linear is your thinking 5)Openness: open/closed to new things |
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Bandura and Reciprocal Determinism
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-Person component (traits)
-Behavior -Environment ---> Influence one another mutually |
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Psychological Self
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persons understanding of his/ her enduring psychological characteristics
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Key components to self concept
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-Psychological self & self-efficacy
-discrepancy btw what the child desires and percieved achievment -perceived support from important people |
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The Child as a Psychologist
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-focuses on internal traits and motivation of others
-better understanding that same person plays different roles in life -Less emphasis on external appearances |
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Moral Reasoning
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-Ability to discern right from wrong is directly correlated to cognitive ability
-Moral Realism: black and white -Moral Relativism: room for interpretation of rules |
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Parents roles in middle childhood
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-most important influence
-recognize self regulalting ability of kids -influenced by culture -social issues around gender expectations: autonomy for boys and accountability for girls -more socially competent kids when warm and demanding |
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Risk factors for vulnerability: Poverty
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-more often ill
-lower IQ -worse performance in school -behavior probs |
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Protective factors: resiliency
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-competent adult parenting
-effective schools -secure initial attachment -strong community -stable parental employment -strong sense of ethnic identity |
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TV is good if
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-prosocial behavior
-moderation -parental supervision |
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Solid foods
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-doesnt help to sleep through night
-ready when baby can hold head upright -sit with support -shows interest in what youre eating |
