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148 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Define succus
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* A juice made from a medicinal plant, by way of bruising or pulping and pressing out the juice, or by using a juicer.
* Most suitable for plants/herbs with a high moisture content. * traditionally used at turn of seasons as a tonic |
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Define expression
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Extraction of juice from fresh plant material by pupling and pressing. No solvent is used.
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Define taxonomy
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Law of arrangement - the way organisms are categorised for reference.
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Define species
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Kind - generally species share distinguishing characteristics and the ability to interbreed successfully.
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Define phylogeny
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Evolutionary relationships between organisms. Based on the theory of evolution.
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Define anthophyta
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Flowering plants.
This is the largest and most highly evolved group, and are found all over the world. * sophisticated vascular and reproductive systems * pollen is dispersed by wind, insects or other animals * includes nearly all medicinal plants * two classes - monocotyledones and dicotyledones |
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Briefly describe the TGA legislation as it relates to herbal medicines.
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* 1989
* to ensure safety, quality and efficacy of therapeutic goods * difficult to apply same standards for synthetic drugs to herbal medicines due to: ... normal contamination of organic matter (not produced under lab conditions) ... number of constituents (not just one or two as in synthetic drugs) ... issues relating to the classification of herbs as food or drugs (TGA vs food industry laws) * 2 different statuses - Listed and Registered - most herbs "listed". * TGA regs do NOT apply to products made by a practitioner, for individual supply to a patient on the basis of consultation. * GMP = good manufacturing practice ensures efficacy, set strength, correct species, uncontaminated material |
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How can you ensure the quality and purity of medicines?
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1) wash hands thoroughly before handling equipment or raw materials
2) Clean work surfaces and equipment thoroughly, and sterilise storage containers 3) Know plant identification and quality 4) use ingredients which are as pure as possible (organic/biodynamic, filtered water 5) store carefully 6) Label the medicine |
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What factors affect dosage?
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age
sex weight organ function absorption and metabolism current medication tolerance route of administration preparation/form of medicine timing with relation to food |
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Which two factors are involved in prescribing?
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1) choosing the herbs
2) choosing the form in which they are to be administered |
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What factors influence the preparation method?
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condition being treated
activity of the herb concentration of available extracts availability of materials convenience of use |
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What two factors are critically important when making herbal medicines?
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1) authenticity of herbal material
... using the right species ... selecting the right part 2) quality of herbal material ... harvesting ... drying ... storage ... growing conditions |
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Why are organic herbs better?
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confidence of purity without contamination by potentially harmful chemicals.
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How do manufacturers assess quality and authenticity?
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1) macroscopical examination
2) microscopical examination 3) Thin layer chromatography to produce a banded pattern unique for each species. 4) High performance liquid chromatography to produce a HPLC fingerprint 5) sight 6) smell 7) taste 8) touch |
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What is the naming order of plants?
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Kindom
Division Class Order Family (sub family) (tribe) Genus Species |
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Describe the botanical naming system
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"Latin binomial"
Generic name + specific epithet (species name) Mentha piperita (peppermint) |
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What does "officinalis" or "officinale" signify?
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The medicinal plant was included in the Materia Medica of the time
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Describe division Bryophyta
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liverworts
hornworts mosses small, simple plants no roots, stems, vascular systems, leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds |
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Describe division Psilophyta
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genus Psilotum (whiskfern)
genus Tmesipteris (grow on treeferns) Rudimentary vascular system No roots, leaves, stems, flowers, fruits, seeds |
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What are the divisions of Kingdom Plantae?
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Bryophyta
Psilophyta Lycophyta Sphenophyta Pterophyta Coniferophyta Cycadophyta Ginkgophyta Gnetophyta Anthophyta |
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Describe division Lycophyta
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club mosses
distinct roots, stems, leaves, vascular system |
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Describe division Sphenophyta
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Equisetym Arvense (horsetail)
Distinctive green ridged stems Small scale like leaves specialised vascular system No flower, fruits, seeds |
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Describe division Pterophyta
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Ferns
Sophisticated vascular system (because they are larger) No flowers, fruits or seeds. |
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Describe division Coniferophyta
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Conifers (pines, firs, cypress, juniper...)
Gymnosperm extremely large plants woody vascular system for support Seeds No flowers or fruit |
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What are gymnosperms?
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Plants that produce seeds in the open (on cone scales) rather than enclosed in another structure.
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Describe division Cycadophyta
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Cycads
woody vascular system No branches (leaves directly from trunk) No flowers or fruit |
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Describe division Ginkgophyta
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Ginkgo biloba
vascular system, roots, leaves, stems, seeds No flowers or fruit. |
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Describe division Gnetophyta
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Diverse division - 70 species, from deserts to tropics
Includes Ephedra sinica (ma huang). sophisticated vascular system No flowers or fruit. |
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Describe division Anthophyta
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Most highly evolved plants
Flowering plants Found all over the world Sophisticated Two classes - Monocotyledones and Dicotyledones |
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Define "wildcrafting"
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Collection of natural herbs from their natural environment
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Define suspension
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Solid herb stirred into liquid. Used frequently for mucilagenous herbs.
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Define nomenclature
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Internation standard, 2 part naming convention.
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Define Latin binomial
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2 word Latin plant name
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Define cotyledon
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embryonic leaves which produce a source of nourishment for the embryo
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Define testa
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seed coat; protects embryo from unfavourable conditions
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Define radicle
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embryonic root
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Define plumule
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embryonic stem
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Define infusion
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aqueous extract of a herb made by steeping herb in water to separate out the soluble parts of the raw herb. Best suited to delicate parts of plant, like leaves, flowers and non-woody stems.
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Define decoction
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Extration of the active constituents of a plant by adding cold water, and then boiling or simmering for some time. Usually used for dense plant parts, like roots, some seeds and barks.
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Define adventitious roots
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Roots that develop from any part OTHER than the radicle - in many monocots, they form at the bast of the stem.
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Define geotropism
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Growth movement of plants in response to gravity - ie, roots grow downwards in response to gravitational pull.
Relies on the presence of hormones and gravity sensors. |
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Define root cap
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Layer of cells at the tip of the growing root:
* protects the tip * lubricates passage * directs growth |
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Define xylem
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One of the two types of vascular tissue plants, that transports water and nutrients.
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Define fresh plant tinctures
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An extract of freshly harvested herb made by maceration.
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Define maceration
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soaking a herb in a menstruum to soften the herb and extract the active constituents
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Define menstruum
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solvent
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Define tincture
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Alcohol and water menstruum based plant extract, usually used for very strong acting or potentially toxic herbs. Usually made to a concentration of 1:3 or weaker.
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Define axillary bud
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A bud in the leaf axil, from which a lateral stem or branch may grow
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Define internode
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The areas of a stem between nodes
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Define leaf axil
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The angle between the stem and the leaf
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Define node
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A point of proliferation in the stem
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Define phototropism
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Growth directed by light(like geotropism). Relies on presence of hormone auxin.
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List the 6 major groups of plant constituents.
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1. gylcosides
2. alkaloids 3. volatile oils 4. tannins 5. gums 6. resins |
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List the properties, solubility and a few examples of glycosides
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* 25-60% alcohol
* cardiac - heart and kidney stimulants. foxglove (Digitalis purpurea) * cyanogenic heterosides - antispasmodic and sedative. Linseed (linum usitatissimum) * sulphur heterosides - antibacterial, antifungal, stimulate mucous membranes. garlic (allium sativum) * phenolic glycosides - antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, carminative. Willow (Salix alba) * flavonoid glycosides - modify inflammatory response. St John's Wort (Hypericum perforatum) * anthracenocides - laxatives. Senna (Cassia angustifolia) * Saponins - anti-inflammatory, expectorant. Ginseng (Panax ginseng). |
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List the properties, solubility and a few examples of Alkaloids
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* 45-70% alcohol
* action on nervous system * caffeine, cocaine, morphine, nicotine |
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List the properties, solubility and a few examples of volatile oils
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* at least 45% alcohol
* range of actions, common include carminative and antiseptic * Mentha piperita, Thymus vulgaris, Rosmarinus officinalis... |
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List the properties, solubility and a few examples of Tannins
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* 25-60% alcohol
* astringent * Salvia officinalis, witch hazel |
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List the properties, solubility and a few examples of gums
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* 15-25% alcohol
* demulcent and emollient * Ulmus fulva, Althea officinalis |
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List the properties, solubility and a few examples of resins
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* 95.8% alcohol
* Calendula officinalis |
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What is the ICBN?
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* International Code of Botanical Nomenclature
* clearly identifies a plant * allows clear and international exchange of information * many plants have no common name |
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What is a Latin binomial?
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Two word name written in italics (or underlined)
1) Generic name - capital letter (name of genus) 2) specific epithet |
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What does "officinalis/officinale" denote?
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Official medicine
Included in materia medica of the time |
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What does "vulgaris" denote?
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common
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What does the abbreviation sp. mean?
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undesignated member of that species
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What does spp. mean?
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A number of species (used when generalising about the genus)
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Why are classifications/names sometimes changed?
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1) to be consistent with new conventions
2) first naming 3) more information becomes available/info is reinterpreted |
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Describe the roots in dicots?
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A tap root (eg carrot) with lateral roots developing from it
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Describe the roots in monocots?
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Network of evenly sized roots develops from adventitious roots growing from the base of the stem - fibrous root system (grass)
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What are feeder roots?
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provide large surface area for the absorption of water and nutrients
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What is the function of the root cap?
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specialised cells on root tip
* protects tip * lubricates passage * directs growth (geotropism) |
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What are the functions of roots?
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1. anchorage and support
2. absorption of water and nutrients 3. hormone production 4. storage |
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Name some modified roots
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Aerial roots (adventitious)
- prop roots (Zea mays) - climbing roots (ivy) - pneumatophores (mangroves) |
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Describe geotropism
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The tendency of roots to grow downwards, according to gravitational pull.
Relies on gravity sensors in root cap and presence of hormone "abscisic acid" |
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What is the typical concentration for a liquid/fluid extract?
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1:1 or 1:2 w/v
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What is the typical concentration for a tincture?
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1:3 w/v or weaker
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What are the advantages of tinctures and fluid extracts?
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very concentrated
minimal processing alcohol preserves readily absorbed (liquid) versatile (for blending etc) |
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What are the disadvantages of tinctures and fluid extracts?
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presence of alcohol
taste |
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When would you chose an infusion/decoction?
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* in situations where you want to increase fluid intake - diaphoretic herbs, UTIs, kidney stones...
* avoiding alcohol - alcoholism, preference, pregnancy... * using mucilaginous herbs for demulcent action * when you need to taste the herb (bitters) * as an alternative hot drink |
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What are the disadvantages of infusions/decoctions?
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* no preservative properties (24 hours max under refrigeratin)
* not very convenient * taste |
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What is the therapeutic dose for infusions/decoctions?
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dry herb = 1:20 w/v
fresh herb = 1:10 w/v |
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What is the shelf life of a succus?
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24 hours unless preserved with ethanol (1:3/4 w/v ethanol)
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When would you choose a succus?
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For plants that are more effective fresh, like chickweed and cleavers.
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Traditionally, when would you take a succus?
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Turn of season, especially Spring, as a tonic
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What are the advantages of powdered herbs?
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* pure form of herb
* uses whole herb * small particles = easier assimilation * can be incorporated into food/drinks * some powders provide fibre |
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What are some disadvantages of powdered herbs?
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reduced shelf life
can be difficult to swallow |
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How would you take a powdered herb?
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capsule
in food/drink taken with water |
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Why would you take pills/capsules?
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convenience
no alcohol no unpleasant taste protect stomach and throat from irritants delay release of substances till they reach the small intestine |
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What are some disadvantages of using pills/capsules
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* processing results in loss of some constituents
* not as readily absorbed as liquids * low dose per capsule/tablet * fixed formulations lack flexibility |
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Why would you dry herbs?
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Reduce bulk
prolongs storage life |
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Describe guidelines for harvesting
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* mid morning, after dew dries
* sharp tools * be aware of contaminants * prevent sweating/wilting etc |
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Breifly explain how and when to harvest roots and rhizomes
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(eg, dandelion, ginger)
Late autumn, early spring energy underground, sap low |
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Breifly explain how and when to harvest barks
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(eg, cinnamon, slippery elm)
Early spring easier to remove |
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Breifly explain how and when to harvest leaves
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(eg, sage, dandelion)
Spring - just before flowering |
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Breifly explain how and when to harvest aeriel parts
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(eg, peppermint)
spring or summer, prior to or during flowering depending on species |
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Breifly explain how and when to harvest flowers
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(eg, chamomile, calendula)
Spring/summer for most species when fully developed |
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Breifly explain how and when to harvest fruit and seeds
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(eg chilli, vitex, celery seed...)
At appropriate stage of ripeness |
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What are the key points to consider if wildcrafting?
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* plant identification
* pollution * health of plants * ecology |
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Define bulb
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Storage and propagative organs found just under the earth.
A small central stem surrounded by modified, fleshy leaves which are scaly at the top and thickened at the base. Food is stored at the base. Adventitious roots grow from stem. |
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Define claddodes
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A plant in which the stem has evolved to be the photosynthetic organ. Often have modified leaves as well.
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Define corm
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Like bulb, except food is stored in the fleshy stem. The stem is surrounded by thin scales.
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Define rhizomes
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Modified underground stem, where each node can send out roots and stems and develop into a whole new plant.
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Define stolon
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Modified lateral stem that grows across the ground, and can send out roots and new shoots.
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Define equivalent dry weight (EDW)
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A convention used to state the concentration of a fresh plant tincture, taking into account the moisture content of the fresh herb.
EDW is obtained by weighing, drying and then re-weighing a small sample of the fresh herb |
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Define glycetract
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A glycerine based extract, particularly useful for those avoiding alcohol or who have difficulty with the taste of tinctures.
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Define infused oils
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A medicinal oil made by macerating plant material in a suitable fixed oil for a certain length of time, at approximately 40C
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Define multiple maceration
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Repeated maceration with many bunches of herb in one menstruum
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Define percolation
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An extract made by a drip filter method of maceration
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Define arrangement
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The distinctive pattern of leaf growth on a stem
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Define attachment
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How the leaf joins the stem
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Define lamina
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leaf blade
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Define mid-rib
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the extension of the petiole along the centre of the leaf
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Define petiole
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the stem that carries the leaf
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Define structure
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a description of leaves, where they are either simple of compound
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Define oxymel
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A sweet tasting, liquid medicine containing vinegar and honey, which has a soothing effect on mucous membranes.
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How do you calculate EDW?
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1. Weigh a small sample of the fresh herb (say, 10g)
2. dry it 3. re-weigh it. This gives the EDW and allows you to work out what % of the fresh plant is moisture (which will effect the menstruum quantities) |
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What are the 4 steps of percolation?
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Comminution (grinding)
Imbibition Maceration Percolation |
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Describe simple percolation
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1. percolate collected
2. marc pressed 3. more menstruum added till desired volume reached No heat final volume determines strength of extract |
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Describe reserve percolation
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1. 75% of final volume percolated
2. herb exhausted with additional menstruum 3. Exhaust percolate concentrated by heat till it reaches 25% of total finished volume 4. two added together to make 100% Uses heat - damage possible |
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Describe repercolation
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1. herb divided into 3-5 portions
2. first portion percolated to the required finished volume. 3. second portion repercolated with menstruum from (2) 4. third portion repercolated with menstruum from (3) etc etc etc No heat used most concentrated extract created |
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Describe multiple maceration
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1. make tincture (say 1:6)
2. strain and measure the yield 3. add 1/6th of that volume in weight in additional herb to create a 1:3 tincture |
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When would you use a glycetract?
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1. avoiding alcohol
2. taste (& therefore compliance) - esp for kids 3. demulcent action 4. mild laxative action 5. emollient action 6. viscous liquid, not easily washed away (gargles) |
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How do you make a glycetract?
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1. maceration using glycerine and water as solvents
2. replacement (industry method)fluid extract - heated to remove alcohol and water 3. reserve percolation using glycerine and water as solvents |
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How would you use infused oils?
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as they are, or blended into cream & ointments
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How can you make a basic infused oil?
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1. chop herb finely
2. cover herb in oil (+ 1cm) 3. keep jar warm and away from lightfor 3-10 days (till it reaches desired strength) 4. Any sediment can be strained off then |
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Which herbs are best suited to infused oils?
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chickweed
calendula St John's Wort Mullein Lavender |
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Describe the growth of a stem
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* plumule grows upwards to form stem
* grows in series of nodes and internodes * growth = development of structures at the node + elongation of internodes * most of growing done at the tip * phototropic |
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Describe modified stems
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1. stolons (lateral runners, strawberries)
2. rhizomes (underground, ginger) 3. tubers (underground, starch storage, potato) 4. bulbs (small central stem surrounded by fleshy leaves) 5. corms (fleshy stem surrounded by scales) 6. cladodes (stem is photosynthetic organ, horsetail) |
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What are the functions of stems?
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support
conduction (xylem and phloem) storage propagation |
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What are the 6 leaf characteristics?
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structure of lamina(simple/compound)
attachment arrangement shape venation margin |
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Describe a simple leaf
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One continuous lamina
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Describe a compound leaf
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Lamina divided into leaflets
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How can you tell a simple from a compound leaf?
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Each leaf has one axillary bud
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Describe an articulate leaf attachment
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definite joint where leaf/petiole joins to stem
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Describe a petiolate leaf attachment
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petiole connects leaf to stem
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Describe a sessile leaf attachment
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leaves join straight to stem (no petiole)
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Name some special leaf attachments
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* Sheathing (base of petiole wraps around stem)
* decurrent (lamina extends onto the side of the stem * perfoliate (stem grows through lamina) |
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Describe alternate leaf arrangement
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one leaf at each node
spiral or parallel |
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Describe opposite leaf arrangement
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2 leaves at each node
deucssate - pairs at right angles |
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Describe whorled leaf arrangement
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More than 2 leaves growing from node
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Describe basal/radical leaf arrangement
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Leaves grow from base of the stem (ie, dandelion)
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Define bract
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Modified leaves that grow at the base of flower stalks or under the flower itself
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Define involucral bracts
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Bracts that appear in a whorl (rows of long, thin bracts surrounding the flower head).
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Define ochrea
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Membranous sheath (fused stipules) found arround the nodes of some plants
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Define photosynthesis
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The process by which the plant creates energy (sugar) from light (by joining C, H & O together)
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Define reticulate
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Venation where veins branch out from the main vein in the midrib into finer and finer traces.
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Define stipules
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Small leaf-like structures found in pairs at the base of the petiole.
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Define venation
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The pattern made by the veins in leaves
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Define syrup
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Concentrated aqueous solution of sucrose or other sugars. Can be made with FEs.
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